PRESENTED  TO  THE  LIBRARY 


OF 


PRINCETON  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY 


BY 


^^--^^  '  '         jjVlPs.  Alej^andcp  Ppoudfit. 


.G:35 


IINSTITUTES 


OP 


BIBLICAL  CRITICISM; 

OR 

HEADS 

OP 

ON  THAT  SUBJECT, 

READ  IN  THE 


7^ 

BY  GILBERT  GERARD,  D.  D. 

Professor  of  Divinity,  and  one  of  his  Majesty's  Chaplains  in  Ordinary  in  Scotland. 


FIRST  AMERICAN  EDITION. 


BOSTON : 
PUBLISHED  BY  CUMMINGS  AND  HILLIARD,  NO  1  CORNHILL. 

CAMBRIDGE  : 

ITNir.  PRESS — HILLIARD  AND  METCALF. 

1823. 


TO 

HERBERT  MARSH,  BD.  F.R.S. 

TRANSLATOR  OF  HICHAELIS, 

WHOSE  LEARNED  LABOURS 
ENTITLE  HIM  TO  A  HIGH  RAiNK  AMONG  BIBLICAL  SCHOLARS, 

THE  FOLLOWING 

ATTEMPT  TO  REDUCE  THE  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  AND  RULES  OF 
SACRED  CRITICISM  TO  A  REGULAR  SYSTEM 

IS  MOST  RESPECTFULLY  INSCRIBED,  BY 

GILBERT  GERARD. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION,    - 


PART  I. 


THE   SOURCES  OF  BIBLICAL  CRITICISM^ 


CHAPTER  I, 

MANUSCRIPTS  AND  EDITIONS  OF  THE  BOOKS  OF  SCRIPTURE,  3 

Sect.  I.   The  Juthority  of  Manuscripts,             -            .  5 
Sect.  II.  The  use  of  J^L-nuscripts,  and  the  Manner  of 

using  them,     -            -            -            -            -  7 

Sect.  III.  The  Authority  of  the  printed  Editions,        -  10 
Sect.  IV.   The  necessity  of  correcting  the  printed  Editions 

by  Maimscripts,        -             -            -            -  14 

Sect.  V.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  -            -            -  18 


t4  eONTENT^S'. 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE  ORIGINAL  LANGUAGES,  -  -  *  -  24 

Skot.  I.  27ie  Origin  of  the  Hebrew  Language^  and  of  the 

Greek,     -----  24 

Sect.  II.  Written  Language,  particularly  the  Hebrew  and 

the  Greek,    -  -  -  -  -       27 

Sect.  III.  Of  the  Hebrew  Vowel  Points  and  Accents^  and 

the  Greek  Spirits  and  Jccents,    -  -  30 

Sect.  IV.  Of  the  Structure  and  Genius  of  the  Hebreiv 

Language,   -  -  -  -  -       37" 

Sect.  V.  Of  the  Language  of  the  JSTew  Testament         -  48 

Sect.  VI.  Of  the  Use  of  the  Original  Languages  in  Crit- 
icism,     -----  51 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  KINDRED  LANGUAGES,  -  ^  -  -55 

Sect.  I.  What  Languages  are  useful,  -  -  -  55 

Sect.  II.  The  JSTecessity  and  Propriety  of  seeking  Assistance 

from  the  Kindred  Languages^  -  -       58 

Sect.  III.  Uses  of  the  Kindred  Languages  in  determining 

the  true  Readings  -  -  -  59 

Sect.  IV.   Uses  of  the  Kindred  Languages  in  interpreting 

Scripture,     -  -  -  -  -      60 


©ONTENT^  V* 


CHAPTER  IV. 

VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES,    -                  -                  -  -                  67 

Sect.  I.   Of  the  Chaldee  Paraphrases,         -             -  -.68 

Sect.  II.   Of  the  Greek  Versions,          -             -  -            71 

Sect.  III.  Of  the  Samaritan  Versionsy       -             -  -       78 

Sect.  IV.   Of  the  Latin  Versions,          -            -  -             80 

Sect.  V.  Of  the  Syr iac  Versions,    -             -             -  -       83 

Sect.  V I.  Of  the  ather  Ancient  Versions,          -  -            85 

Sect  VII.   Of  Modern  Versions,    -            -             -  -       89 

Sect.  VIII.  Distinctions  of  Versions,                -  -             93 
Seot.  IX.   Of  the  Use  of  Versions  for  determining  Readings,     95 

Sect.  X.   Of  the  Use  of  Versions  for  Interpretation,  -       100 


CHAPTER  V. 

the  circumstances  relating  to  the  books  of  scripture,  105 

Sect.  I.  Of  the  Kinds  of  Composition  in  Scripture,  -  105 
Sect.  II.  Of  the  Authors  of  the  Books  of  Scripture  -  -  110 
Sect.  HI.  Of  the  Times  of  Writing  the  Books  of  Scrip- 
ture, -  -  -  -  -  113 
Sect.  IV.  Of  the  Occasions  of  the  Books  of  Scripture  115 
Sect.  V.  Of  the  Scope  and  Design  of  the  Books  of  Scrip- 
ture, -  -  -  -  -  119 
Sect.  VI.  Of  the  Plan  and  Distribution  of  the  Books  of 

Scripture,  -  -  -  -  123 

Sect.  VII.   Of  the  Connexion  of  the  Parts  in  the  Books  of 

Scripture,  -  -  -  -       131 


Vm  eONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  Vr. 


GOMPARISON  OF  SCRIPTURE  WITH  ITSELF,                      -                  -  136 

Sect.  I.  Comparison  of  Pnrnllel  Passages,    -             -  136 

Sect.  II.   Comparison  of  Passnges  not  Parallel,    -             -  145 
Sect.  III.  Comparison  of  Particular  Passages  with  the 

'   Analogy  of  Faith,          -             .            -  147 


CHAPTER  VII. 


HISTORY  AND  MANNERS,       -  -  -                  -                   -         152 

Sect.  I.  Of  Civil  History,      -  -  -             -             152 

S¥.CT.  U.  Of  Political  History  -  -             -             -       155 

Sect.  HI.  Of  Customs  and  Manners,  -  -            158 

Sect.  iV,   Of  Chronology,  -  -             .             -       165 

Sect.  V.   Of  Geography,        -  -  -             -             167 

S^cT.  y I.  Of  Mtural  History,  -  -            -            -       171 


CHAPTER  Vill. 


OPINIONS  AND  LEARNING,              _                    -                   -  -                   175 

Sect.  I.  Of  the  Religious  Opinions  of  Jncipnt  JVationsy  173 

Sect.  II.   Of  Jincient  Learning  and  Philtsop'.iy  -             -       177 

Bv.cT.lU.  Of  the  Jeivish  Sects  and  Parties,     -  -             180 

Sect.  IV.   Of  Jewish  Opinions,    -             -  -             -       186 

t-^ECT.  V.  Of  the  Jewish  Writers,        -            -  -             191 

^^v.cT.yL  Of  thp  Jluclent  Curisliuu  JVriters,  -             -       200 

Sbct.  yU'  Of  Modern  Christian  Wriieif,      -  -             204 

iiFXT.ym-  Of  Pagan  Writers,               -  -            -       208 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PART  IL 

THE  OBJECTS  OF  SCRIPTURE  CRITICISM,       -  -                  -         211 

CHAPTER  I. 

CORRECTIVE  OR  EMENDATORY  CRITICISM,              -  -                  212 

Sect.  L  The  J^ature  of  a  Various  Reading.,  -             -       212 

Sect.  II.   The  Sources  of  False  Readings,        -  -             215 

h-E.CT AW,  The  Kinds  of  False  Readings,  -            -      230 
Sect.  IV.  Rules  of  judging  concerning  Various  Readings^     244 


CHAPTER  IL 

the  explication  OF  SEPARATE  WORDS.                   -  -                   270 

Sect  [.  The  Combination  of  Letters  into  Words,  -      270 

Sect.  II.  Irregular  Forms  and  Flexions  of  Wordsy  -             274 

Sect.  1 1 1.  The  signification  of  Words,     -             -  -       277 

^KCT.  IV.  The  Usage  of  J^^cuns,          -            -  -            290 

Sect.  V.   The  Usage  of  Verbs,     -             -             -  -       298 

Sect.  VI.   The  Usnge  of  Particles,      -             -  -             322 
Sect.  Vil.  Difficulties  in  determining  the  Parts  of  Speech,    338 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  EXPLICATION  OF  COMBINATIONS  OF  WORDS,  -                   -          342 

Sect.  I.     Difficulties  in  Punctuation,              -  r            342 

Seot.  II. in  Syntax,               ,  .            -       345 

Sect.  111.  -_— -  in  Idiom^           -            -  -            349 


CONTENTS. 


Sect.  IV.  Difficulties  in  PhraseSy              -            _            .  355 

Sect.  V.    _.  arising  from  the  Grammatical 

Figures,          -            -             -  357 

Sect.  VI,         ■            arising  from  the  Rhetorical  Figures,  360 


CHAPTER  IV. 


difficulties  in  the  circumstances  relating  to  the 

BOOKS  OF  scripture,                -             -             .              -  $66 

Sect.  I.     Difficulties  in  the  Connexion  of  particular  Parts,  366 

Sect.  II. in  Plan  and  Distribution,          -  374 

Sect.  III. in  Scope  and  Design,           -             -  378 

Sect.  IV. concerning  the  Occasion,             -  379 

Sect.  V.    — concerning  the  Time,           -            -  380 

Sect.  VI. concerning  the  Authors^              -  381 

Sect.  VII. in  different  kinds  of  Composition,  382 


CHAPTER  V. 

OF  RECONCILING  SCRIPTURE  TO  ITSELF,       -                  -                  -  385 

Sect.  I.    Seeming  Contra  lictions  in  Quotations         -  385 

Sect.  II. ^^  Historical  Passages,  392 

Sect.  HI.  ■ — between  Predictions  and 

their  Accomplishment  400 

Sect.  IV.  — ■ ^w  Points  of  Doctrine  401 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS  TO  REASON  AND  MORALITY,  404 

Sect.  I.     Seeming  Contradictions  to  Truth     -            -  404 

Sect.  II. to  Morality      -  -      408 

Sbot.  hi.  Passages  unreasonably  severe          -            -  414 


CONTENTS.  33. 


CHAPTER  VIL 


SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS  TO  HISTORY,  AND  MATTERS  OF 

FACT,  -  -  _  -  -  -  417 

Sect.  I.     Seeming  Contradictions  to  Matters  of  Fact.,  in 

the  J\*arr  at  ions  of  the  Sacred  Writers,      -  417 

Sect.  IT.    Seeming  Contradictions  in  Occasional  References,  422 

Sect.  III. — —   in  Prophecies,  -■  423 


CHAPTER  Yin. 


complicated  difficulties,    -            -            -            -  425 

Sect.  I.     DiJ^liculties  arising  from  different  Various 

Readings,       .             -             -             .  _       425 

Sect.  II,    Complicated  Difficulties  in  the  Sense,          -  427 

Sect.  HI.  Difficulties  both  in  Reading  and  in  Sense,  429 

Sect.  IV.  Difficulties  which  admit  different  Solutions,  431 
CONCLUSION,           ------        433 


INTRODUCTION. 


1.  As  the  Christian  religion  is  of  divine  authority, 
and  as  the  Scriptures  are  the  authentic  record  and  rev- 
elation of  it,  every  Christian,  and  especially  every 
Christian  teacher,  is  concerned  to  understand  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  obliged  to  study  them  with  care. 

2.  The  importance  of  understanding  the  Scriptures 
has  never  been  denied,  though  the  means  of  attaining 
to  it  have  not  always  been  sufficiently  attended  to,  even 
in  the, schools  of  Theology. 

3.  The  Scriptures  can  be  understood,  only  by  being 
studied  and  interpreted  according  to  the  genuine  prin- 
ciples of  criticism  ;  and  a  regular  deduction  of  these 
principles,  illustrated  by  examples,  seems  to  be  the  best 
method  that  can  be  taken  foi>  assisting  students  in  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures. 

4.  It  is  from  the  Scripture,  rightly  understood,  that 
all  just  opinions  in  religion  are  to  be  der4yed ;  but  mis- 
interpretation of  it  is  the  certain  cause  of  error, 

1 


INTRODUCTION. 


6.  This  part  of  our  course  may  be  reduced  to  two 
general  heads  ; — the  Sources — and  the  Objects — of 
Scripture  Criticism.  The  consideration  of  the  former 
will  lead  us  to  discover  the  most  general  and  simple 
principles  ;  the  consideration  of  the  latter  will  enable 
us  to  combine  these  principles,  to  deduce  from  them 
more  particular  rules,  and  to  apply  them  to  use. 


PART   I. 


THE  SOURCES  OF  SCRIPTURE  CRITICISM. 

6.  The  sources  of  Scripture  criticism  are  reducible 
to  the  following  ;  manuscripts  and  editions ;  the  ori- 
ginal languages;  the  kindred  languages;  versions; 
the  occasion,  scope,  and  other  circumstances  of  the 
books  of  Scripture  ;  comparison  of  scripture  with  itself; 
ancient  history   and   manners;    ancient  learning   and 

opinions. 

7.  These  are  subservient  to  Scripture  criticism, 
either  by  establishing  the  true  readings,  by  ascertaining 
the  sense,  or  by  displaying  the  beauties  of  the  Scrip- 
ture language. 


CHAP.  I 

Manuscripts  and  Editions  of  the  Books  of  Scripture. 

8.  The  first  thing  necessary  for  understanding  the 
Scripture,  is,  to  know  what  the  authors  really  wrote. 


4  MSS.  AND  EDITIONS. 

9.  We  cannot  determine  this  by  having  recourse  to 
their  autographa,  because  all  these  are  long  ago  lost. 

Simon,  Hist.  Crit.  N.  T.  c.  29.  Pfaff.  de  gen.  lect.  N.  T.  c.  2. 
§  7.  Michaelis  Introd.  Lect.  §  12. 

10.  There  are  many  MSS.  which  have  been  tran- 
scribed from  these  or  from  other  MSS.  and  many  edi- 
tions published  from  MSS. ;  which  are  therefore  the 
sources  to  which  we  must  apply  for  discovering  what 
the  inspired  authors  wrote. 

Simon,  ib.  Michaelis,  §  13. 

11.  It  is,  chiefly,  to  the  common  editions  of  the 
books  of  Scripture  that  the  generality  can  have  recourse 
for  this  purpose ;  and  these  are  sufficient  for  what  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  be  known. 

Kennicott,  Diss.  General.  §  7. 

12.  But,  as  these  editions  differ  in  some  places  from 
one  another,  and  MSS.  differ  much  more,  we  cannot 
be  certain  what  was  originally  written,  but  by  a  care- 
ful examination  and  comparison  of  the  several  MSS. 
and  editions ;  and  therefore  it  is  of  great  utility  that 
such  as  have  the  opportunity,  consult  these,  and  com- 
municate their  discoveries  to  the  world. 

Ken.  ib.  §  8—14.  De  Rog^i,  Var.  Lect.  Prol. 


AUTHORITY  OF    MSS, 


SECT.  I. 

Tlie  Authority  of  Manuscripts, 

13.  There  are  catalogues  of  the  known  MSS.  of 
the  Scriptures,  some  of  which,  or  one  collected  from 
them,  it  will  be  useful  to  have  constantly  at  hand. 

Simon,  Hist.  Crit.  V.  T.  1.  1.  c  21, 22,  23.  Houbigant,  Proleg. 
c.  3.  a.  2.  Kennicott,  Diss.  2.  and  Diss.  Gen.  §  164.  Mill. 
Prolegom.  Wetstein,  Proleg.  Dupin,  Prelim.  Diss.  Pfaff. 
ib.  c.  4,  5.  Michaelis,  §  21—27.  De  Rossi,  Yar.  Lect.  Prol. 
Clavis. 

14.  Of  the  New  Testament,  there  are  several  very 

ancient  MSS. ;    but  few  MSS.  of  the  Old  Testament 

are  of  very  great  antiquity. 

Kennicott,  Diss.  1.  p.  305.  Diss.  2.  p.  465,  Diss.  Gen.  §  49, 
50,  162, 163. 

15.  The  ages  of  MSS.  are  ascertained  either  by 
testimony,  or  by  internal  marks ;  with  greatest  certain- 
ty by  the  latter ;  not  however  by  any  one  mark  singly, 
but  by  the  conjunction  of  several. 

Simon,  Hist.  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  22,  23.  Houbigant,  Prol.  p.  195. 
Kennicott,  Diss.  1.  p.  309,  312,  313.  Pfaff.  c.  3.  §  1,2. 
Wetstein,  Prol.  c.  1.  §  4, 11,  17.  c.  2.  c.  3.  c.  4.  c.  5.  Michaelis, 
§  21,  22.    De  Rossi,  ib. 

16.  The  authority  of  a  MS.  depends  very  much  on 
its  antiquity  ;  and,  consequently,  it  is  of  importance  to 
ascertain  the  ages  of  MSS.  as  exactly  as  possible. 

17.  The  principle  on  which  antiquity  gives  author* 
ity  to  a  MS.  is,  that  the  risk  of  falling  into  mistakes 
increases  in  proportion  to  the  frequency  of  transcrib- 


6  AUTHORITY    OF    MSS. 

ing ;  and  therefore,  other  things  being  equal,  the  au- 
thority of  a  MS.  is  in  proportion  to  its  antiquity. 

Wetstein,  Proleg.  c.  16.    Kennicott,  Diss.  2.  p.  467.     Walton, 
Proleg.  6.  §  6.  De  Rossi,  ib.  can.  13 — 16. 

18.  But,  from  that  very  principle,  there  arises  an 
exception  to  this  general  rule ;  viz.  that  a  MS.  certain- 
ly copied  from  one  very  ancient,  has  greater  authority 
than  another  written  earlier,  but  copied  from  a  MS.  of 
no  great  antiquity. 

Houbigant,  Proleg.  p.  105,  106.  Kennicott,  Diss.  1.  p.  307.    De 
Rossi,  ib.  can.  19 — 25. 

19.  But,  there  are  other  circumstances,  besides  their 
ages,  which  likewise  affect  the  authority  of  MSS. 

20.  MSS.  of  the  Hebrew  bible  are  of  greater  or  less 
authority,  according  to  the  countries  in  which  they 
were  written,  and  the  persons  for  whose  use  they  w^ere 
written. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  21,  22.      Houbigant,  Prol.  p.  107.  Kenni- 
cott, Diss.  1 .  p.  313.    De  Rossi,  ib.  can.  24 — 30. 

21.  Some  MSS.  show  themselves  to  have  been  writ- 
ten by  persons  ignorant  of  the  language  ;  and,  on  this 
very  account,  have  great  authority  in  favour  of  readings 
which  could  not  have  been  introduced  without  knowl- 
edge of  the  language. 

PfaE  c.  3.  §  4.    Michaelis,  §  88.    Marsh's  Michaelis,  ch.  8. 

22.  Some  MSS.  bear  plain  marks  of  being  written 
with  care,  and  therefore  have  great  authority ;  others, 
of  being  written  negligently,  and  these  can  claim  no 
authority. 

Simon,  N.  T.  c.  30.    Michaelis,  §  28.    Walton,  ib.    Marsh's 
Michaelis,  ib.     De  Rossi,  ib. 


USE    OF   MSS.  7 

23.  MSS.  which  have  been  designedly  rendered 
conformable  to  a  particular  copy  or  version,  of  vv^hich 
there  are  many  instances,  have  no  authority  in  cases 
wherein  they  agree  with  that  copy  or  version. 

Simon,  N.  T.  c.  30,  31.  Mill,  Prol.  N°  1268,  &c.  Wetstein, 
Prol.  c.  4.  §  1.  Michaelis,  §  21,  22,  28.  Marsh's  Michaelis, 
ib.    De  Rossi,  ib. 

24.  A  MS.  transcribed  from  another,  or  MSS.  trans- 
cribed from  the  same  original,  or  corrected  by  it,  can 
have  no  separate  or  independent  authority. 

Simon,  N.  T.  c.  31.  Wetstein,  Prol.  c.  4.  §  3.  Michaelis,  §  28. 
Marsh's  Michaelis,  ib.  §  3.    De  Rossi,  ib. 

25.  MSS.  written  since  the  invention  of  printing, 
and  copied  from  any  printed  edition,  have  no  authority. 

Kennicott,  Diss.  1.  p.  305.  Wetstein,  Prol.  c.  2.  §  8.  Michae- 
lis, §  20.  Marsh's  Michaelis,  ib. 


SECT   II. 

The  Use  of  Manuscripts,  and  the  Manner  of  using 
them, 

26.  The  first  and  principal  use  of  MSS.  is  to  show, 
us  all  the  different  readings  which  have  taken  place, 
that  we  may  be  able  to  compare  them,  and  to  choose 
that  which  is  best  supported. 

Kennicott,  Diss,  passim. 

27.  If  Other  considerations  be  equal,  that  reading  is 
to  be  preferred,  which  is  found  in  the  most  ancient 

MSS. 

Pfaff,  c.  12.  can.  1 .    Walton,  ib. 


8  USE   OP   MSS. 

28.  If  other  circumstances  be  equal,  the  reading  of 
the  greater  number  of  MSS.  is  to  be  preferred  to  that 
of  a  less  number.  It  is  on  this  principle,  that  most  of 
the  received  readings  have  been  preferred. 

Pfaff,  ib.    Wetstein,  c.  16.  §  18.    Michaelis,  §  28.    Walton,  ib. 

29.  Great  regard  is  to  be  paid  to  a  reading  found  in 
a  MS.  which  is  evidently  v^ritten  with  accuracy. 

30.  In  judging  of  the  number  of  MSS.  which  sup- 
port a  reading,  care  must  be  taken,  not  to  reckon  for 
different  MSS.  one  which  has  been  called  by  different 
names. 

Wetstein,  c.  1.  §  18.  c.  4.  §  1. 

31.  It  is  necessary  to  know  with  respect  to  every 
MS.  whether  it  contains  the  whole  of  the  Old,  or  of 
the  New  Testament,  or  only  a  part  of  them,  and  what 
part ;  and  whether  it  be  complete  or  defective,  and 
what  its  defects  are. 

Mill,  Prol.  N°  1156.  Wetstein,  c.  1.  §  12,  13,  16.  c.  4.  §  3. 
Marsh's  Michaelis,  ib.  §  4. 

32.  Besides  the  principal  use  which  has  been  men- 
tioned, MSS.  answer  indirectly  several  purposes  subor- 
dinate to  that;  particularly  by  indicating,  in  many 
ways,  the  occasions  of  mistakes,  and  thus  leading  us  to 
correct  both  these  and  similar  mistakes. 

S3,  MSS.  shew  us  the  various  forms  of  the  charac- 
ters used  in  different  ages,  and  thus  enable  us  to  judge 
which  of  them  were  liable  to  be  confounded. 

Houbigant,  Prol  eg.  Kennicott,  Diss.  1.  p.  313.  Simon,  V.  T. 
1.  1.  c.  23.     Wetst.  Prol.  c.l.  §  4, 5,  7.  c.  2,  3,  4,  5. 


AUTHORITY    OF    MSS.  9 

34.  From  MSS.  we  learn  what  abbreviations  have 
been  at  any  time  used  ;  and  by  knowing  this,  we  are 
enabled  to  account  for  the  introduction  of  many  vari- 
ous readings. 

Kennicott,  Diss.  Gen.  §  25,  26.    Wetst.  c.  1.  §  7.    Michaelis, 
§  22.     Isa.  li.  4.     Lowth  in  loco. 

35.  From  MSS.  it  appears  that,  both  in  the  Hebrew 
and  in  the  Greek  Scriptures,  numbers  were  expressed, 
not  only  in  words  at  length,  but  also  by  single  numeral 
letters,  and  by  figures ;  by  which  many  corruptions 
have  naturally  been  occasioned. 

Kennicott.  Diss.  1.  and  2.  Diss.  Gen.  §  27. 

36.  MSS.  are  often  written  with  black  rules,  which 
by  confounding  letters  otherwise  easily  distinguishable, 
lead  readers  to  mistake  one  of  them  for  the  other. 

3,  n.   Isa.  liii.   10      ^Snn  "he  hath  put  him  to  grief."     'hr\2 
"  with  grief."  Vulg.  Lowth  in  1.     Jer.  xxviii.  8. 
Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  54,  122,  179.  p  83.  note,  p.  87.  note. 

n,  a.  Isa.  vi.  13.     Lowth  in  1.  vii.  16.     Ken.  ib.  c.  523. 

n,  IJ.  Id.  Diss.  1.    2  Sam.  v.  1.  comp.  1  Chron.  xi.  1. 

12,  :\  2  Sam.  xxviii.  26.  comp.  1  Chron.  xi.  27.     Ken.  Diss.  1. 

D,  'J.  1  Sam.  xvii,  32.  comp.  70. 

3,  n.  Josh.  vii.  18,  &c.  comp.  70.  Vat.  and  v.  26,  and  1  Chron. 
ii.  7. 

37.  MSS.  were  generally  written  in  continued  lines, 
without  either  punctuation  or  any  breaks  between 
words  or  sentences  ;  by  which  means,  letters  may  be 
readily  taken  from  one  word  to  another,  and  words  from 
one  clause  or  sentence  to  another. 

Houbigant,  Prol.     Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  313,  &c.      Simon,  N.  T.  c. 
S3.     Wetst.  c.  1.  §  5,  10. 

2 


10  AUTHORITY  OF  EDITIONS. 

38.  MSS.  were  often  written  on  rolls,  by  misplacing 
which,  mistakes  may  readily  have  been  introduced. 

Ken.  Remarks  on  select  passages  in  the  Old  Testament. 

39.  MSS.  show  the  different  orders  in  which  the 
books  of  Scripture  have  at  different  times  been  placed  ; 
and,  by  so  doing,  may  account  for  some  appearances, 
or  remove  some  difficulties. 

40.  MSS.  discover  the  groundlessness  of  many  con- 
jectures concerning  the  occasions  of  various  readings 
which  have  been  formed  by  learned  men  not  much 
conversant  with  MSS. 

Mill.  Prol.  No.  1367      Wetst.  Prol.  c,  1.  §  7. 

41.  Hebrew  MSS.  are  often  written  without  vowel 
points ;  and  some  of  them  retain  many  of  the  vowel 
letters,  which  are  omitted  in  later  MSS.  and  in  the 
printed  editions. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  22.    Ken,  Diss.  I.  p.  313. 

42.  Greek  MSS.  are  generally  written  without  ac- 
cents, spirits,  or  the  iota  subscriptum. 

Simon,  N.  T.  c.  33.     Wetst.  c.  1.  §  5. 


SECT.  III. 

The  Authority  of  the  printed  Editions, 

43.  All  the  printed  editions  of  the  Scriptures,  how- 
ever many,  are  derived  from  a  very  few  original  and 
independent  editions ;  the  authority,  therefore,  of  all 
the  printed  editions  resolves  itself  into  the  authority  of 
these  few  ;  and,  in  like  manner,  the  authority  of  each 


AUTHORITY  OF  EDITIONS.  11 

of  these  few  resolves  itself  into  that  of  the  particular 
MSS.  from  which  it  was  printed. 

44.  Of  the  Old  Testament,  there  are  only  two  edi- 
tions which  can  be  considered  as  original ;  for  though 
there  were  some  prior  to  both,  they  have  been  very 
rare,  and  little  known. 

45.  The  first  is  that  of  R.  Ben  Chaim  ;  and  from  it 
all  the  ordinary  printed  editions  are  in  general  derived  ; 
and,  consequently,  the  authority  of  them  all  is  resolv- 
able into  that  of  the  MSS.  from  which  his  edition  was 
taken  ;  which,  having  been  all  corrected  according  to 
the  Masora,  as  well  as  very  late,  are  entitled  to  little 
more  than  the  authority  of  a  single  MS.  and  that  of  no 
great  antiquity. 

Simon,  Catalog.  Edit.  Bibl.  Houbigant  Prol.  c.  3.  a.  2.  Ken. 
Diss.  1.  p.  287,  548.  Diss.  2.  p.  470.  Diss.  Gen.  §  60.  Walton, 
Prsef.  &  Prol.  4. 

46.  Therefore,  also,  the  printed  editions  have,  all 
together,  little  more  than  the  authority  of  one  MS.  and 
less  authority  than  one  MS.  more  ancient  than  those 
from  which  they  were  taken ;  but,  of  more  ancient 
MSS.  than  these,  there  are  many  still  extant. 

Ken.  ib. 

47.  The  other  original  edition  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, is  the  Complutensian  Bible,  it  having  been  in 
the  press  at  the  same  time  with  the  former ;  but  it  too 
was  taken  from  MSS.  corrected  by  the  Masora. 

Ken.  ib.  &  Diss.  Gen.  §  60.    Walton,  Prsef.  &  Prol.  3.  §  14. 

48.  Coasequently,  where  these  two  editions  agree, 


12  AUTHORITY  OF  EDITIONS. 

their  authority  is  not  much  greater  than  if  they  had 
been  printed  from  the  same  MS. 
Ken.  ib. 

49.  There  are  some  variations  between  them  ;  and 
these  are  to  be  judged  of,  according  to  the  authority  of 
the  MSS.  from  which  they  were  respectively  taken,  or 
by  the  examination  of  other  MSS. 

50.  Still  therefore  it  holds  true,  that  the  concurrence 
of  the  printed  editions  of  the  Old  Testament  has  no 
great  force  for  establishing  a  disputed  reading,  in  op- 
position to  evidence  against  it. 

51.  Of  the  New  Testament,  there  are  four  capital 
editions,  in  some  measure  original  and  independent, 
from  one  or  other  of  which  all  the  rest  are  derived,  and 
into  the  authority  of  which,  that  of  them  all,  conse- 
quently, resolves  itself. 

Mill.  Prol.  No.  1088,  &c.     Wetst.  Prol.  c.  10,  11,  12,  13,  16. 
Michael.  §  33,  34. 

52.  The  Complutensian,  which  is  the  first  of  these, 
is  thought  by  some  to  have  been  carefully  taken  from 
a  great  number  of  MSS.  and  to  have  chiefly  followed 
one  very  ancient ;  and  by  these  persons  its  authority  is 
highly  extolled. 

Mill.  ib.     Walton,  Prol.  4.  §  14,  15. 

53.  Others  affirm  that  it  was  taken  from  MSS.  of 
the  14th  and  following  centuries,  and,  in  several  in- 
stances accommodated  to  the  Latin  version  ;  and  conse- 
quently that  it  ought  to  have  very  little  authority. 

Wetst.  ib. 


AUTHORITY  OF  EDITIONS.  IS 

54.  Till  this  question  be  determined  with  sufficient 
evidence,  that  edition  ought  to  be  followed  with  cau- 
tion. 

Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  12.  §  1. 

65,  The  second  is  Erasmus's,  who  took  his  first 
edition  from  only  three  MSS.  of  the  Gospels,  and  one 
MS.  of  the  other  books ;  and  in  his  subsequent  edi- 
tions, employed  a  few  more  MSS.  and  made  some 
alterations  according  to  the  Complutensian.  The 
readings  of  his  edition,  therefore,  stand  on  the  authority 
of  a  very  few  MSS. 

Jid.  ib.     Mill.  ib.  No.  1116—1154. 

bQ.  The  next  is  that  of  Robert  Stevens,  who  fol- 
lowed chiefly  Erasmus's  last  edition,  but  used  along 
with  it,  the  Complutensian,  and  fifteen  MSS.,  but  some 
of  them  only  small  fragments,  and  few  of  them  very 
ancient ;  so  that  the  authority  of  his  edition  resolves 
itself,  partly  into  the  authority  of  the  two  former  edi- 
tions, and  partly  into  that  of  his  fifteen  MSS. 

Jid.  ib.     Mill.  ib.  No.  1155— 1187.     1220—1235. 

57.  The  fourth  is  Beza's,  who  took  his  edition 
chiefly  from  Stevens's  third  impression,  with  one  MS. 
of  the  Gospels,  and  one  of  the  Epistles,  and  often  pre- 
ferred readings  supported  by  a  single  or  dubious  au- 
thority. Where  his  edition,  therefore,  differs  from 
others,  it  has  little  weight.  It  is  from  his,  that  the 
common  editions  are  taken. 
Jid.  ib.    Mill.  ib.  No.  1258 — 1293. 

68.  It  follows,  that  the  readings  found  in  all  the 
printed  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  rest  on  the 


14  NECESSITY    OF   CORRECTING   EDITIONS. 

authority  of  a  few  MSS.  not  always  the  most  ancient ; 
and,  consequently,  the  concurrence  of  these  editions 
cannot  confer  great  authority  on  the  readings  adopted 
by  them  in  opposition  to  others  which  appear  to  be 
well  supported. 


SECT.  IV. 

The  Necessity  of  Correcting  the  printed  Editions  by 
Manuscripts, 

59.  That  there  are  many  various  readings  in  the 
Gopies  of  the  New  Testament,  and  that  it  is  highly 
useful  to  examine  them,  has  for  a  long  time  been  gen- 
erally confessed  ;  and  they  indeed  supply  the  means  of 
rendering  the  text  of  that  part  of  Scripture  in  a  very 
great  degree  correct. 

Walton,  Prol.  6.  §  1. 

60.  But  an  opinion,  however  ill-founded,  has  been 
generally  received,  the  few  who  ventured  to  oppose  it 
having  been  till  lately  discountenanced  and  borne  down, 
that  the  Old  Testament,  as  printed  in  Hebrew,  is  ab- 
sdutely  correct ;  and  the  prevalence  of  this  opinion  has 
prevented  many  from  employing  any  care  in  examining 
the  text  of  the  Old  Testament. 

AValton,  Prol.  7.  I« 

61.  In  support  of  that  opinion,  is  urged  the  great 
care  and  accuracy  of  the  Jews,  in  transcribing  their 
Scriptures.  But,  as  no  care  is  sufficient,  without  a 
perpetual  miracle,  for  preventing  every  mistake  in 


NECESSITY   015'   CORRECTING   EDITIONS.  15' 

transcribing,  so,  by  every  kind  of  evidence  of  w^hich 
the  matter  is  capable,  it  appears  that  they  have  actually 
committed  mistakes  very  often  in  their  copies  of  the 
Old  Testament. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  235,  379,  351,  371,  411.     Diss.  2.  p.  315,  401, 
441,  &c.  260,  273,  274,  278.     Diss,  Gen.  §  23. 

62.  It  is,  however,  insisted,  that,  when  transcribers 
made  any  small  mistake,  it  was  immediately  corrected 
by  the  Jewish  Doctors,  so  that  no  mistakes  now  re- 
main in  any  of  the  copies.  But,  though  these  Doc- 
tors did  several  times  review  and  correct  the  copies  of 
the  Old  Testament,  this  could  not  be  effectual  for  re- 
moving every  mistake ;  nor  did  one  review,  even  in 
their  own  judgment,  render  other  reviews  unneces- 
sary. 

Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  444.     Diss.  Gen-  §  32—43.  51—58.    Houbig. 
Prol.  c.  1.  a.  2.     Walton.  Prol.  8.  §  18—29. 

63.  But  it  is  urged,  that  the  Masora  corrected  all 
the  mistakes  which  had  crept  in  prior  to  it,  and  gave 
the  means  of  detecting  every  subsequent  mistake. 
From  the  very  nature  of  the  Masora,  however,  it  is 
clear,  that  it  could  not  possibly  answer  either  of  these 
purposes ;  and  it  is,  in  fact,  very  faulty  and  defective, 
and  formed  on  late  MSS. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  24,  25,  26.  Houbig.  Prol.  c,  1.  a.  3.  Ken. 
Diss.  2.  p.  262—291.     Walton,  Prol.  8.  §  1—16. 

64.  After  the  reception  of  the  Masora,  the  Jews 
Were  very  careful  to  correct  their  MSS.  according  to 
it ;  but,  it  being  faulty  and  inadequate  to  the  purpose, 
this  was  far  from  being  sufficient  for  rendering  them 


16  NECESSITY  OF  CORRECTING  EDITIONS. 

free  from  errors ;  and,  in  fact,  there  are  readings  in 
the  text,  as  corrected  by  it,  and  printed,  which  are 
evidently  wrong. 

Houbig.  Prol.  c.  2.  a,  2.      Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  97.  S43,  438,     446, 

472,  528,  555.     Diss.  2.  p.  314,  356. 
Deut.  X.  6.  "  Aaron  died  in  MoseraP     Contradicted  by  Num. 
XX.  22.  xxxiii.  38.  "  in  Hor."^^  Samaritan. 
Ken  in  loc.  Diss.  2.  p.  314.    Diss.  Gen.  §  18,  165. 
2  Sam.  xxiv.  13.  "Seven  years  of  famine  ;"  inconsistent  with 
1  Chron.  xxi.  12.  «  Three  years;"    which  is  probably  right. 
Uniformity.  70.  T  for  J. 
Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  472.     Diss.  Gen.  §  167. 
2  Chron.  xxii.  2.  «  Forty  and  two  years  old  was  Ahaziah  ;" 
contradicted  by  2  Kings  viii.  26.  "Two  and  twenty ^'^  and 
by  2  Chron,  xxi.  20.  his  father  Jehoram  only  forty.     Vers.  D 
for  b. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  97,  528,  535.    Diss.  2.  p.  356. 
Josh.  xxi.  36,  37.  omitted,  yet  genuine.     Context,  vers.  ||f , 
MSS.  If  Edit. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  22.  Houbig.  in  loc.  Ken.  in  loc. 
Diss.  1.  p.  440,  552.  Diss.  2  p.  285,  330,  390,  459,  464, 
485,  487, 571.  Diss.  Gen.  §  25,  43,  55,  56,  60,  61,  80,  98, 
123,  125,179. 

65.  The  practice  of  correcting  MSS.  according  to 
the  Masora  prodiiced  a  very  great  degree  of  unifor- 
mity ;  it  was  confidently  asserted  that  the  uniformity 
was  perfect ;  and,  for  a  long  time,  by  reason  of  the 
want  of  access  to  a  variety  of  ancient  MSS.,  the  asser- 
tion could  not  be  directly  disproved,  and  was  very  gen- 
erally believed.  But  since  MSS.  were  examined,  it 
appears  with  the  fullest  evidence,  that  they  actually  do 
contain  very  many  variations  from  the  Masoretic  text ; 
the  oldest  MSS.  most ;  but  even  late  ones  several ;  and 
these  often  preferable  to  the  received  readings ;  and 
often  unquestionably  the  genuine  readings. 


NECESSITY  OF  CORRECTING  EDITIONS.  17 

Houbigant,  Prol.  c.  1.  a.  2.  Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  290,  297.  et  pas- 
sim. Diss.  2.  p.  286.  445,  459.  Gen.  xliv.  24.  "  We  came 
up  unto  my  father;"  "  our  father."     2  MSS.  Sam,  Vers. 

Ken.  in  loc.  Diss.  Gen.  §  48. 

1  Sam.  xvii.  34.  "  A  lion  and  a  bear  took  (n?)  him  out  of  the 
flock  "  niy  "a  lamb."  Keri.     All  xMSS.  Vers. 

Ken.  ibid,  and  §  39. 

Isa.  xxxvi.  5.  "  /  say,  I  have  counsel"  *nnDX,  absurd.  iT^DX 
"  thou  sayest."  16  MSS.  Syr.  2  Kings,  xviii.  20.  Eng. 
supplies  it,  but  improperly  retaining  also  the  other  reading. 

Lowth  et  Ken.  in  loc. 

^Q,  The  printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew  text  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  those  of  the  Greek  of  the  New 
Testament  are,  therefore,  precisely  on  the  same  foot- 
ing ;  and  the  following  principles  maj  be  justly  held 
with  respect  to  both. 

Walton  Prol.  6. 

67.  There  has  not  hitherto  been  so  great  care  em- 
ployed on  any  edition  of  the  Scriptures,  as  to  render 
the  readings  sacred  which  are  adopted  in  it,  or  to  su- 
persede the  necessity  of  examining  them  by  MSS. 

68.  A  reading  is  not  rendered  even  suspicious,  merely 
on  account  of  its  not  being  found  in  the  common  edi- 
tions of  the  Bible. 

69.  A  reading  ought  not  to  be  rejected  as  false 
for  its  not  being  found  in  any  printed  edition  of  the 
Bible. 

70.  So  far  is  there  from  being  reason  for  adhering 
tenaciously  to  the  printed  text,  that  it  ought  to  be  de- 
parted from  without  scruple,  whenever  another  reading 
found  in  MSS.  is  cleai'ly  preferable, 

3 


18  THE  SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH. 

71.  A  much  more  correct  edition  of  the  Scriptures 
than  any  extant,  may  be  obtained,  and  would  be  very 
desirable. 


SECTION  V. 

The  Samaritan  Pentateuch. 

72.  For  ascertaining  the  true  reading  in  the  books 
of  Moses  we  have  a  peculiar  instrument,  the  Samari- 
tan Pentateuch,  which  was  little  known  by  Christians 
till  the  17th  century;  which  was  then  printed  from 
one  MS. ;  but  of  which  several  MSS.  have  been  since 
examined  by  learned  men. 

Walton,  Prol.  11.  §  10.  Simon,  V.  T.  I.  i.  c.  12.  Houbigant, 
Prol.  c.  3.  Ken.  Diss.  2.  c.  1.  Diss.  Gen.  cod.  61 — 66. 
Brett,  Diss,  on  ancient  versions. 

73.  It  is  not  a  version,  but  the  original  law  itself, 
written  in  a  character  different  from  the  Hebrew. 

Jid. 

74.  It  was  not  translated  from  the  Greek  version, 
nor  copied  from  Hebrew  books  after  the  time  of  Ezra ; 
but  was  among  the  ten  tribes  when  they  separated  from 
Judah ;  and,  from  the  copies  then  among  them,  it  has 
been  successively  transcribed. 

Houbigant,  ibid.  a.   1.  §   1.      Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  110,  130,  &c. 
Walton,  Prol.  U.  §  11,  12. 

75.  The  Samaritan,  and  the  Hebrew,  are  two  inde- 
pendent copies  of  the  original  text,  preserved  by  nations 
who  hated  one  another,  and  held  no  intercourse  to- 


THE  SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH.  19 

gether  ;  yet  they  agree  in  general.  This  is  a  strong 
confirmation  of  the  authenticity  and  integrity  of  that 
part  of  Scripture  which  they  contain. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  339.      Diss.  2.      Walton,  ib.  §   16,  17,  18. 
Brett,  ib. 

76.  So  far  as  the  Samaritan  copy  is  preserved  cor- 
rect, it  shews  what  readings  took  place  in  the  time  of 
Rehoboam. 

77.  It  differs,  in  many  places,  from  the  present  He 

brew,  and  that,  by  all  the  several  sorts  of  variations. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  11.  Houbig.  Prol.  c.  3.  a.  1.  §  1,  2.  Wal- 
ton, Prol.  ll.§  15.  [N^  81.] 

78.  All  these  differences  have  been  made  objections 
against  its  authority,  because  it  has  been  taken  for 
granted,  that  it  must  be  wrong,  wherever  it  is  not  con- 
formable to  the  Hebrew ;  but  as  this  goes  on  the  false 
supposition  of  the  absolute  integrity  of  the  Masoretic 
copies,  it  cannot  reasonably  be  admitted. 

Houbig.  ib.  §  1.  &c.     Walton,  Prol.  11. 

79.  The  wilful  corruption  charged  upon  it,  of 
changing  Ebal  into  Gerizzim,  Deut.  xxvii.  4.  is  the 
only  thing  that  could  justly  affect  its  authority;  but 
even  this  could  destroy  that  authority  in  all  cases; 
and,  on  a  careful  examination,  it  appears  highly  pro- 
bable, from  many  topics,  and  even  from  the  context 
of  the  Hebrew  itself,  that  what  has  almost  universally 
been  reckoned  a  wilful  corruption  in  it,  is  the  genuine 
reading,  and  that  the  corruption  is  to  be  charged  on 
the  Jews. 

Houbig.  Prol.  p.  73.      Ken.  Diss.  2.  c.   1.      Walton,  Prol.  11. 
§  16. 


20  TBE  SAMARITAN  PENTAtEUCH. 

80.  All  the  ether  differences  between  the  Samari- 
tan and  the  Hebrew  copies,  exhibit  various  readings ; 
with  respect  to  which,  neither  copy  should  be  preferred 
absolutely  and  in  all  cases ;  but  both  copies  carefully 
collated,  and  the  genuine  text  selected,  partly  from  the 
one,  and  partly  from  the  other. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  10,  12.     Houbig.  Prol.  c.  3.  a.  1.  §  2, 

81.  The  Samaritan  seems  to  be,  and,  on  several  ac- 
counts, may  naturally  be  expected  to  be,  preserved 
more  correct  than  the  Hebrew ;  and  therefore  will 
supply  many  emendations  or  preferable  readings. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  i.  c.  12.     Houbig.  ib.  §  3.     Ken.  Diss.  2.  Gen. 

iv.   8.  "  Cain  said  unto  Abel  his  brother, and  it 

came  to  pass  when  they  were  in  the  field,"  defective,  piska^ 
all  Heb  MSS.  and  edit.     Sam.  "  Let  us  go  into  the  field." 
70.  Syr.  Vulg.  Targums.  Aquila.  Philo. 
Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  347,  &c.     Diss.  p.  351,  364.  Diss.  Gen.  et 
in  loc.     Houbig.  Prol.  et  in  loc. 

Exod.  xxxii.  32  "  If  thou  wilt  forgive  their  sin,  —  and  if  not, 
blot  me  out  of  thy  book,"'  defective,  all  Heb.  MSS.  and  edit. 
Sam.  NK',  "  forgive  it."  70. 

Houbig.  in  loc.    Ken.  in  loc.  et  Diss. 
Exod.  xiv.  1 2.  "  Is  not  this  the  word  that  we  did  tell  thee  in 
Egypt,  saying,"  &c.     Not  recorded  in  Heb.  but  in  Sam.  after 
Exod.  vi.  9. 
Jid. 
Deut.  xxvii.  2,  3.  «  All  the  words  of  this  law."     What  law  ? 
defined  neither  here,  nor  at  the  execution  of  it.  Josh.  viii. 
32. — various  opinions — ascertained  to  be  the  decalogue,  by 
addition  in  Sam.  after  Exod.  xx.  17.  explicitly  enjoining  it  to 
be  thus  written. 

Houbig.  in  loc.    Ken.  ib.  et  Diss.  2.  p.  83,  &c. 
Exod.  ii.  2'.  "Moses  swore,  Wi."  Heb. — an  oath  unnecessa- 


THE  SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH.  2l 

ry.    Sam.  Sx^i,  «  consented."  Chald.  Syr.  Eng.  lb.  "  He  gave 
Moses  Zipporah."  Sam.  adds  T\\i/vh  "  to  wife." 

Gen.  xxxvi.  16.  «  Duke  Korah."  Heb.  Chald.  70.  Vul.  Arab. 
Sjr.  Wanting  in  Sam.  An  interpolation — context,  v.  11, 12. 
and,  5,  14,  18.  I  Chron.  i.  36. 

Houbig.  in  loc.     Ken.  ib.  et  Diss.  1.  p.  3T6, 

Gen.  iii.  12.  "  The  woman  he  gave  me,  Kin."  Heb. — Sam. "  /S%e," 
K'H — above  20  MSS. — sense — often  elsewhere. 

Houbig.  Prol  p.  49,  et  in  loc.     Ken.  in  loc.  Diss.  i.  p.  343. 

Gen.  xxvi.  18.  "Isaac  digged  again  the  wells  of  water  which 
*D'3  nan  they  had  digged  in  the  c?a?/s  of  Abraham." — no  nom- 
inative. Sam.  "  Which  n^;;  the  servants  of  Abraham  had 
digged."  70.  Vulg.  Syr.  ''♦ 

Houbig.  in  loc.  Ken.  ib.  et  Diss.  l.p.  359. 

Num.  xxiv.  20.  "  Amalek  was  the  first  of  the  nations,  and  his 
posterity  12ii  nj?,"  literally,  "  to  the  destroyer." — obscure. 
Sam.  n:iN^  n;;  "  until  it  perish." 
Houbig.  Prol.  et  in  loc.     Ken.  ib. 

Gen.  ii.  4.  "  In  the  day  that  the  Lord  God  made  the  earth  and 
heavens.^^  Heb. — Sam.  "The  heavens  and  the  earth." — com- 
mon order. 

Houbig.  and  Ken.  in  loc. 

Gen.  xii.  16.  Abraham  "  had  he-asses,  and  men-servants,  and 
maid-servants,  and  she-asses,  and  camels."    Sam.  "  Men- 
servants,  and  maid-servants,  and  he-asses,  and  she-asses,  and 
camels." 
Ken.  in  loc.    Houbig.  ib.  et  Prol.  p.  72. 

82.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  agrees  with  the  most 
ancient  Hebrew  MSS.  in  some  places  where  it  differs 
from  the  printed  text. 

[Gen.  iii.  12.  N°  81.] 

83.  It  agrees  remarkably  with  the  version  of  the  70; 
and  thus  shews  that  very  few  variations  had  crept  into 
the  copies  of  the  Hebrew,  between  the  time  of  the 


22         THE  SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH. 

defection  of  the  ten  tribes  and  the  making  of  that 
version. 

84.  In  some  instances,  it  does  differ  from  the  70 
version ;  and  wherever,  in  these  instances,  it  preserves 
the  genuine  reading,  it  shews,  either  that  corruptions 
had  crept  into  the  Hebrew  copies  during  that  interval, 
or  that  that  version  has  undergone  changes ;  and  may 
thus  be  the  means  of  correcting  errors  which  could  not 
be  otherwise  corrected. 

Ken.  Diss.  2.    Diss.^en.  §  18. 

Exod.  vii. — xi.  In  the  Hebrew,  the  messages  given  by  God, 
are  recorded  but  once,  generally  as  delivered  by  him  to  Mo- 
ses; but  once,  ch.  xi.  4.  &c.  only  as  delivered  by  Moses  to 
Pharaoh. — Sam.  All  of  them  are  recorded  twice,  as  deliv- 
ered by  God  to  Moses,  and  then  again  as  delivered  by  him 
to  Pharaoh.  This  agreeable  to  ancient  usage — a  propriety 
in  recording  the  execution  of  the  divine  commissions — pre- 
serves regularity  throughout — probable  that  the  omission  was 
made  by  the  authors  of  the  70  version. 
Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  380.  Diss.  2.  p.  30r. 
Diss.  Gen.  §  24.  [Deut.  x.  6.  No.  64.] 

85.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  sometimes  agrees 
with  the  Hebrew  copies,  in  readings  which,  notwith- 
standing their  concurrence,  appear  by  other  means  to 
be  faulty ;  which  proceeds,  either  from  some  mistakes 
having  crept  into  the  copies  before  the  defection  of  the 
ten  tribes,  or  from  the  Samaritans  having,  in  these 
places,  supplied  defect  in  their  copies  from  some  He- 
brew MSS. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  565,  434,  &c.     Diss.  Gen.  §  84.  4,  5.  121. 
Deut.  xxi.  23.    "  He  that  is  hanged  is  accursed  of  God," — 
Heb.   Sam.  70.      But  the  apostle  quotes  it.  Gal.  iii.   13. 


THE  SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH.         23 

"  Cursed  is  every  one  that  hangeth  on  a  tree." — Syr.  God 
probably  added  to  the  Heb.  and  70  by  the  Jews,  out  of  ha- 
tred to  the  Christians,  and  to  the  Sam.  perhaps  by  Sym- 
machus. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  81,  84,  4,  85. 
Deut.  xxxii.  43.  "  Praise  his  people,  ye  nations."    Heb.  Sam. 
But  quoted  Rom.  xv.  10.      "  Rejoice,  ye  Gentiles,  with  his 
people." — 70.  Eng. — nx  or  D;^  omitter-. 

Ken.  ib.  §  81,  84,  5,  108.  c.  507.  p.  82.  note. 

86.  There  being  several  MSS.  of  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  known,  and  their  variations  pointed  out, 
its  genuine  readings  can  be  better  ascertained,  and 
more  successfully  applied  to  the  correction  of  the  He- 
brew copies,  than  at  its  first  publication. 


24  THE  ORIGINAL   LANGUAGES. 


CHAP.  II. 


The  Original  Languages. 

87.  For  explaining  the  Scriptures,  some  knowledge 
of  the  original  languages  in  which  they  were  written, 
is  absolutely  necessary ;  as  without  it,  whatever  sense 
a  person  puts  upon  them,  must  be  taken  wholly  on  the 
authority  of  others. 

88.  To  be  reduced  to  this  necessity,  is  shameful  in 
the  teachers  of  religion;  and,  therefore  to  neglect  the 
study  of  these  languages,  is  also  in  them  inexcusable. 

89.  Criticism  presupposes  the  grammar  of  the  par- 
ticular languages ;  and  is  employed  in  applying  the 
principles  there  laid  down,  to  their  proper  use. 

90.  The  languages  in  which  the  Scriptures  are  writ- 
ten, are  the  Hebrew  and  the  Greek ;  on  them  it  there- 
fore is,  that  Scripture  criticism  must  be  exercised. 


SECT.  I. 

The  Origin  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  and  of  the 
Greek. 

91.  Some  have  ascribed  the  invention  of  language, 
wholly  to  the  natural  powers  of  men  ;^  others,  wholly 
to  a  divine  instruction.''  Most  probably,  the  first  lan- 
guage was  formed  by  Adam  and  Eve  for  themselves, 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  HEBREW.  25 

by  the  use  of  their  own  powers,  but  super  naturally  as- 
sisted.^ 

1  Diod.  Siciil.  1.  i.  Lactant.  de  cultu.  1.  10.     Greg.  Njss.  cont. 
Eunom.  or.  12.     Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  14,  15. 

2  The  Jews  in  general.     Plato.  Cratyl.  Koran,  c.  2.    Bux- 

torf  de  ling.  Heb.  orig.      Blair  on  Rhetor.  L.  6.      Walton, 
Prol.l.§4. 

3  Universal  History,  b.  1.  c.  2.  s.  5. 

92.  From  our  supposing  the  primitive  language  to 
have  been  formed  not  without  divine  assistance,  or  even 
from  its  having  been  immediately  of  divine  original,  it 
cannot  be  concluded,  that  it  must  have  possessed  an 
uncommon  degree  of  perfection  ;  for  still,  the  wisdom 
of  God  would  adapt  it  to  the  necesshies  of  mankind  at 
that  period,  and  to  the  use  which  their  unimproved  fa- 
culties could  make  of  it ;  and  consequently,  it  is  natu- 
ral to  think  that  it  was  narrow  and  unpolished. 

Univ.  Hist.  ib.     Blair,  lb. 

93.  Adam  and  his  posterity  continued  to  use  the 
primhive  language,  only  making  some  additions  to  it, 
as  their  occasions  from  time  to  time  required.  On  ac- 
count of  the  longevity  of  men,  and  their  not  being  very 
numerous,  nor  widely  scattered,  that  language  probably 
remained  with  little  variation,  till  the  deluge ;  and  the 
same  language  would,  of  course,  be  spoken  by  the  fam- 
ily of  Noah,  for  some  space  of  time. 

Univ.  Hist.  ib.     Simon,  ib.     Walton,  Prol.  1.  §  6. 

94.  This  uniformity  of  language  was  broken  by  the 
dispersion  of  mankind  at  Babel ;  and  when,  in  conse- 
quence of  that  event,  the  different  tribes  were  formed 
into  distinct  nations?   they  would  naturally  run  into 

4 


26    ORIGIN  OF  THE  HEBREW  AND  THE  GKEEK. 

different  dialects,  which  would,  in  course  of  time,  be- 
come more  and  more  different  from  one  another. 

Gen.  xi.  6,  &c.  Cleric,  in  loc.  Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  14. 
Scaliger,  Exercit.  in  Cardan.  Is.  Casaubon,  Diatrib.  de  ling. 
Heb.  M.  Casaubon  de  4  ling.  Wotton  concerning  the  Con- 
fusion of  Languages.  Brett's  Essay  on  the  same.  Buxt.  de 
ling.  Heb.  confusione.     Walton,  ib.  §  6,  7. 

95.  Some  have  thought  that  the  primitive  language 
is  wholly  lost ;  others,  that  it  still  exists,  and  that  the 
Hebrew  is  that  language.  The  truth  seems  to  be,  that 
in  one  sense  it  is  lost,  all  the  languages  now  known 
differing  from  it  in  many  respects  ;  but  in  another  sense 
it  still  exists,  to  wit,  in  the  several  dialects  derived  from 
it,  all  which  retain  something  of  it. 

Greg.  Nyss.  ib.    Simon,  ib.  c.  14.    Grot,  in  Gen.  xi.  1. 

96.  Of  these  dialects,  that  may  most  properly  be 
reckoned  the  primitive  language,  which  has  deviated 
least  from  it :  And,  though  claims  have  been  urged  in 
favour  of  many  languages,  particularly,  of  all  the  Ori- 
ental tongues,  this  character  is  shewn,  by  many  plaus- 
ible arguments,  to  belong  to  the  Hebrew,  in  preference 
to  all  others. 

Theodoret.  qu.  51.  in  Gen.  Pocock.  Pref.  in  Tograi.  Buxt. 
ib.  Chysost.  horn.  30.  in  Gen.  xi.  August,  de  Civ.  Dei.  1. 
17.  c.  11.  Hieron.  Comment,  in  Sophon.  Origen,  horn.  II. 
in  Num.  Selden  de  Synedr.  1.  2.  c.  9.  Bochart,  Phaleg.  1. 
I.e.  15.  Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  14,  15.  Schultens,  Orat.  de 
ling.  Arab.     AValton,  Prol.  3.  §  1—22. 

97.  The  Hebrew  language  was  not  confined  to  the 
Israelites  alone,  nor  even  to  the  descendants  of  Abra- 
ham or  of  Shem  ;    but  was  the  same  with  that  of  the 


WRITTEN  LANGUAGE.  27 

Pheiiicians  and  Cannaanites.  who  were  of  the  posteri- 
ty of  Ham. 
Simon,  ib. 

98.  The  Greek  language  w^as  ultimately  derived 
from  the  same  source,  having  taken  its  rise  from  some 
of  the  Oriental  dialects  used  by  the  colonies  which 
peopled  Greece  ;  but,  by  reason  of  the  situation  of  those 
that  used  it,  their  progress  in  arts  and  sciences,  and 
their  care  in  refining  and  improving  it,  it  underwent  so 
great  alterations  as  to  become,  in  time,  a  very  dissimi- 
lar language. 

Squire's  Inquiry  into  the  origin  of  the  Greek  Language.  Ogerii 

Gr?eca  et  Latina  Ling.  Hebraizantes.    Monboddo's  Origin  of 

Lang.  p.  J.  b.  3.  c.  11,  12.  &  p.  2.  diss.  1. 


SECT.  IL 

Of  Written  Language^  particularly  the  Hebreiv  and 
the  Greek, 

99.  Men  could  not  fail  soon  to  become  desirous  of 
expressing  their  thoughts  by  visible  marks,  as  well  as 
by  sounds. 

100.  The  first  method  which  they  fell  upon  for  this 
purpose  was,  probably,  the  fixing  upon  marks  to  de- 
note particular  things ;  and  these  would  be,  in  the  be- 
ginning, a  rude  picture  of  the  thing  ;  but  would,  after- 
wards, be  simplified  for  the  sake  of  expedition.  Of 
marks  in  this  stage,  the  Chinese  characters  appear  to 
be  an  instance. 

Warburton,  Div.  Leg.     Blair  on  Rhetor.  L.  7.     Walton,  Pro!. 
2.  §  13,  20,  21. 


28  WRITTEN  LANGUAGE. 

101.  By  most  nations,  these  marks  of  things  were 
laid  aside,  as  soon  as  they  had  invented  or  learned  a 
more  commodious  method  of  writing,  namely  by  an 
alphabet ;  but,  the  Egyptians  retained  it  along  with  this 
other  method,  and  improved  it  to  a  great  degree  of  re- 
finement in  their  hieroglyphical  writing,  which  they 
appropriated  to  particular  purposes,  especially  those  in 
respect  of  which  they  studied  secrecy. 

Warburton,  ib.     Blair,  ib.     Walton,  ib.  §  17,  18,  19. 

102.  The  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  being  in  high 
estimation,  the  symbols  employed  in  them  probably 
gave  occasion  to  some  of  the  common  metaphors  of  the 
East;  and,  if  such  metaphors  are  found  in  Scripture, 
the  knowledge  of  these  symbols  will  serve  for  deter- 
mining their  meaning. 

Warburton,  ib. 

Num.  xxiv.  17.     "There  shall  come  a  star  out  of  Jacob,  and  a 

sceptre  shall  rise   out   of  Israel."      Hierogl.    "a  god — a 

king." 

103.  The  invention  of  alphabetical  writing  has  al- 
ways been,  with  reason,  considered  as  a  very  great 
effort  of  human  genius.  Whether  it  was  wholly  owing 
to  that,  or  partly  also  to  a  divine  original  ?  who  was 
the  author  of  it  ?  whether  Adam,  or  Abraham,  or  Mo- 
ses, or  the  Assyrians,  or  the  Phenicians,  or  the  Egyp- 
tians ? — are  questions  which  have  been  moved,  but 
which  cannot,  perhaps,  be  answered  with  any  degree 
of  certainty. 

Walton,  Prol.  2.  §  1—7.     Blair,  ib.  L.  7. 


WRITTEN    LANGUAGE.  29 

104.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  Moses  was  ac- 
quainted with  alphabetical  writing,  and  used  it  in  the 
Pentateuch. 

Blair,  ib. 

105.  It  has  been  made  a  question.  What  were  the 
original  Hebrew  characters  ?  Some  contend  that  they 
were  the  same  with  the  present ;  others  maintain,  and 
perhaps  with  better  reason,  that  these  are  properly  the 
Chaldean  characters,  which  the  Jews  had  learned  dur- 
ing their  captivity  at  Babylon,  and  used  ever  since : 
and,  that  their  ancient  characters,  in  which  the  Scrip- 
tures were  originally  written,  were  the  Phenician,  or 
what  are  now  called  the  Samaritan,  at  least  very  little 
different  from  them. 

Rabbins  in  general.  Buxt.  Lightfoot  in  Mat.  iv.  Sclmltens. 
Robertson,  Gram.  Heb.  Append.  1.  Hieronym.  Morinus* 
Capellu?.  Bochart,  Phaleg.  Walton,  Prol.  2.  §  8.  and  3. 
§  29—37.  Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  13.  Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  146, 
&c.     Wilson's  Heb.  Gram. 

106.  The  Phenicians  used  the  same  characters  with 
Moses  and  the  ancient  Hebrews ;  and  Cadmus  carried 
thence  the  Alphabet  with  him  into  Greece,  where 
their  most  ancient  letters  very  much  resembled  the  Sa- 
maritan, and  bore  plain  marks  of  being  derived  from 
them,  though  they  have  been  gradually  altered  till  they 
came  to  their  present  form. 

Walton,  Prol.  2.  §  4,  6,  9.  Sec.     Ken.  ib.     Wilson,  ib.  Blair,  ib. 


so  HEBREW  VOWEL  POINTS. 


SECT.  III. 


Of  the  Hebrew  Vowel  Points  and  Accents,  and  the 
Greek  Spirits  and  Accents, 

107.  The  question  that  has  been  much  agitated,  con- 
cerning the  antiquity  and  the  authority  of  the  present 
vowel  points,  is  of  considerable  iaiportance,  with  res- 
pect both  to  the  understanding  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, and  to  the  determining  of  the  sense  of  Scrip- 
ture. 

108.  The  Jews  agree  that  the  reading  and  the  sense 
fixed  by  these  points,  is  universally  the  genuine  ;  and 
their  common  opinion  is,  that  they  were  first  used  bj 
Ezra,  and  continued  ever  since  ;  but,  some  of  them 
hold,  that  only  the  consonants  were  written,  and  the 
proper  vowels  handed  down  by  oral  tradition  till  about 
600  years  after  Christ,  when  they  were  first  expressed 
in  writing  by  the  present  marks. 

Elias  Levita,  Prsef.  3.  in  Mass.     Ham. 

109.  Among  Christians,  some  maintain,  that  the 
vowel  points,  in  their  present  figure ;  some,  that  at 
least  marks  equivalent  to  these,  were  always  in  use, 
and  were  affixed  as  they  now  stand  by  Ezra,  and  con- 
sequently are  of  divine  authority,  and  everywhere 
determine  the  true  reading  and  the  true  sense.  Others 
think  that  they  were,  long  after  that  time,  invented 
or  adopted  by  the  Jewish  critics,  called  the  Masorctes; 
that  therefore,  they  are  merely  of  human  authority, 
have  been  often  wrong  placed,  and  give  a  false  reading 


HEBREW  VOWEL  POINTS.  31 

and  a  false  sense,  which  may  be  departed  from,  when- 
ever the  analogy  of  the  language,  or  the  connexion, 
gives  reason  for  doing  so. 

Buxt.  Tiberias.  Buxt.  de  Antiq.  punctorum.  Leusden, 
Philol.  Heb.  Hottinger.  Thes.  Philol.  Schultens,  Instit. 
Gram.  Heb.  Robertson,  Gram.  Heb.  Append.  2.  and  3. 
Capell.  arcan.  punctuat.  Walton,  Prol.  3.  §  38 — 56.  Simon, 
V.  T  1.  1.  c.  27.  Prideaux,  Connex.  P.  1.  b.  5.  Masclef. 
Lovvth's  Isaiah,  Prelim.  Dissert,  p.  54.  Wilson,  Heb  Gram. 
c.  1,  2. 

110.  That  the  vowel  points  are  modern,  and  of 
human  invention,  is  argued  from  many  topics  :  there 
are  none  such  used  to  this  day  in  the  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch, nor  were  they  anciently  used  in  any  other  of  the 
oriental  languages. 

111.  The  copies  of  the  Scriptures,  used  in  the  Jew- 
ish synagogues,  are  constantly  written  without  points  ; 
a  practice  which  could  never  have  been  introduced,  if 
they  had  been  original  to  the  language,  or  of  divine 
authority. 

112.  All  the  ancient  various  readings  which  have 
been  marked  by  the  Jews,  regard  only  the  letters,  not 
one  of  them  the  vowel  points  ;  which  could  not  have 
happened,  if  these  had  been  then  in  use. 

113.  The  ancient  cabalists  draw  all  their  mysteries 
and  allegories  from  the  letters,  none  of  them  from  the 
vowel  points,  which  they  could  not  have  neglected  if 
they  had  been  acquainted  with  them,  as  they  would 
have  been  copious  sources  of  the  conceits  in  which 
tliey  delighted. 


32  HEBREW  VOWEL    POINTS. 

114.  It  appears,  from  the  ancient  versions,  that  they 
all  read  the  text,  in  many  places,  differently  from  what 
it  is  now  fixed  to  by  the  vowel  points ;  and  therefore 
had  it  without  them. 

116.  There  is  no  mention  made  of  the  vowel  points 
by  any  of  the  ancient  Jewish  writers,  though  they  had 
often  the  most  natural  occasions  for  it,  if  they  had  been 
acquainted  with  them  ;  lor  the  books  Bahir  and  Zohar, 
alleged  in  opposition,  have  been  proved  not  to  be  very 
ancient. 

116.  Neither  is  there  a  hint  of  vowel  points  by  any 
of  the  ancient  Christian  writers,  for  several  centuries; 
not  even  by  Jerome,  though  he  often  takes  notice  of 
different  pronunciations  of  Hebrew  words ;  but  it  is 
always  only  in  reference  to  the  letters. 

117.  There  seems  to  be  sufficient  evidence,  that  the 
present  vowel  points  were  introduced,  probably  in  imi- 
tation of  the  Arabians,  who  had  refined  much  on  their 
own  language,  after  the  Hebrew  had  ceased  to  be  a 
living  tongue,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  reading  of  it  ; 
and  that  they  were  gradually  brought  to  their  present 
state,  between  the  fifth  and  the  tenth  century. 

118.  They  who  introduced  them,  no  doubt  intended 
them  for  expressing,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  pronun- 
ciation of  the  Hebrew  as  then  in  use ;  and  often  suc- 
cessfully ;  but  it  had  been  so  long  a  dead  language, 
that  they  could  not  fail  to  be  often  mistaken  ;  and  their 
system  of  punctuation  renders  letters,  at  one  time, 
quiescent  and  useless,  Vvhich,  at  other  times,  have  a 


HEBREW  VOWEL    POINTS.  33 

variety  of  sounds,  and  produces  great  intricacy  in  the 
flexions  of  nouns  and  verbs. 

119.  From  supposing  the  vowel  points  modern,  it 
will  not  follow  that  the  Hebrew  must  have  been  a 
language  consisting  only  of  consonants,  which  would 
indeed  be  absurd  ;  for  it  is  expressly  maintained,  that 
there  are  vowel  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  J<  a, 
1  u^  *>  i,  to  which  are  now  commonly  added  n  ^?  and 
i;  0,  by  means  of  which  that  language  might  be  read 
without  points,  almost  as  well  as  any  other  can  ;  and 
that  these  are  really  vowels,  appears — from  their  being 
expressed  as  such,  in  most  proper  names,  by  the  70, — 
from  the  letters  corresponding  to  them  in  place,  being 
vowels  in  the  Greek  alphabet,  which  was  borrowed 
from  the  Phenician, — and  from  the  frequency  of  their 
recurrence,  which  is  found  to  be  just  such  as  ought  to 
belong  to  these  vowels. 

120.  Though  there  be  many  syllables,  and  even 
words,  in  which  none  of  these  letters  (called  Matres 
lectionis)  occur,  and  though,  on  that  account,  they 
seem  insufficient  for  the  pronunciation  of  the  Hebrew  ; 
yet  they  might  have  been  sufficient  when  that  was  a 
living  language,  or  even  as  long  as  it  was  preserved 
entire.  They  express  all  the  long  vowels  ;  and  it  may 
be,  that  the  words  in  which  none  of  them  occur,  had 
only  short  vowels,  which  it  was  not  unnatural  for  a 
rude  and  simple  language,  like  the  Hebrew,  to  omit  in 
writing,  as  being  implied  in  enunciating  the  conso- 
nants. On  the  introduction  of  the  vowel  points,  the 
vowel  letters  were  omitted  wherever  they  seemed  to 

the  introducers  to  serve  only  as  vowels,  which  has 
5 


34  HEBREW  VOWEL  POINTS. 

increased  the  difficulty  of  reading  without  points ;  but 
as,  even  in  the  printed  bibles,  words  which  want  these 
letters  in  one  place,  retain  them  in  another, — as  an- 
cient MSS.  preserve  them  in  many  words  which  are 
always  printed  without  them, — and  as  they  are  con- 
stantly retained  in  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  ; — from 
these  sources,  the  full  writing  and  regular  form  of  most 
Hebrew  words,  might  perhaps  be  recovered. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  27.  1.  ^.  c.  8.      Herder  on  Hebrew 
Poetry. 

121.  The  Masoretes,  in  expunging  the  matres  lec- 
tionis,  where  they  thought  they  served  only  for  vowels, 
and  their  place  would  consequently  be  supplied  by  the 
newly  invented  points,  have  often  been  mistaken ;  and 
bv  that  means,  have  introduced  a  multitude  of  false 
readings,  or  omissions  of  these  letters,  where  they  are 
essential  to  the  sense. 

122.  From  supposing  the  vowel  points  modern,  it 
will  not  follow,  that  the  sense  of  the  text  would  be 
altogether  uncertain  ;  for  though,  in  that  case,  words 
of  different  significations  would  consist  of  precisely  the 
same  letters,  this  is  no  more  than  what  happens  in  all 
languages,  where  the  sense  and  connexion,  nevertheless, 
enable  us  sufficiently  to  distinguish  them  ;  and  many 
words,  which  now  would,  without  points,  be  the  same, 
were,  before  the  invention  of  these,  distinguished  in 
writing,  by  some  of  the  vowel  letters. 

123.  By  affixing  to  words  which  consist  of  the 
same  letters,  different  vowel  points,  according  to  the 
diversity  of  their  significations,  the  Masoretes  have  de- 


HEBREW  VOWEL  POINTS.  35 

temiined  the  sense  of  Scripture  according  to  their  own 
idea  of  it,  or  their  traditional  interpretation  ;  and  this 
sense  should  not  be  lightly  or  hastily  departed  from. 
But  they  were  fallible,  and  have  mistaken  in  many 
instances ;  and  therefore,  that  sense  should  not  be 
implicitly  followed,  but  abandoned  without  scruple, 
whenever  there  are  good  reasons  for  preferring  another 
sense. 

Lowtli's  Isaiah,  Prelim.  Diss.  p.  54.     Simon,  V.  T.  1.  3.  c.  1. 

124.  Though  the  vowel  points  be  not  of  authority, 
yet  they  are  of  considerable  use  ;  not  only  for  ascer- 
taining the  sense  in  many  instances ;  but  also,  as  they 
often  indicate  the  true  reading,  by  their  agreeing  to  it, 
not  to  the  false  reading  received  in  the  text, — as  their 
not  being  affixed  to  some  words,  points  out  these  as 
erroneous, — and  as  they  sometimes  give  intimation, 
where,  in  consequence  of  their  introduction,  vowel 
letters  have  been  omitted  ;  and  thus  lead  us  to  restore 
the  true  reading. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  343.  Houbig.  prol.  p.  49. 
Nin  "  he**  is  often  erroneously  put  up  for  N'n  "  she,"  but  always 
shown  to  be  an  error  by  being  pointed  xrn.  '  JlN'  iiavin^  been 
often,  through  the  superstitions  of  the  Jews,  written  instead 
of  mn%  is  often  shown  to  be  so,  by  its  having  the  points  of 
this  latter  word. 

Ken.  ib.    Houbig.  ib. 
Judg.  xvi.  18.    "  He  hath  showed  (ph)  her;"    but  pointed  as 
'h,  which  is  right.     Keri.  6.  MSS.  sense. 
Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  1.  p.  446. 

125.  A  great  multiplicity  of  accents  have  been  used 
in  Hebrew,  concerning  which  different  opinions  have 
been  entertained,  similar  to  those  concerning  the  vowel 


36  HEBREW  VOWEL  POINTSo 

points.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  they 
were  introduced  along  with  these  by  the  Masoretes  ; 
and  they  are  of  no  authority  nor  moment,  but  only  em- 
barrass the  language. 

126.  There  has  been  a  question  of  the  same  kind, 
concerning  some  particulars  in  the  Greek  language,  on 
which  the  sense  of  words  in  the  New  Testament  some- 
times depends  ;  the  iota  subscriptum,  the  spirits,  and 
the  accents; 

127.  It  appears  that  the  ancient  Greeks  did  often 
express  the  force  of  the  iota  subscriptum,  though  by  a 
different  figure  from  ours ;  but  it  is  certain  that  they 
often  omitted  it  in  writing  ;  and  as  it  is  never  found  in 
the  most  ancient  MSS.  of  the  new  Testament,  we  are 
sure,  either,  that  the  apostles  did  not  write  it,  or,  that 
we  cannot  discover  where  they  wrote  it ;  but  that  it  has 
been  placed  as  we  now  have  it,  by  late  transcribers  or 
printers  ;  and  consequently,  we  are  at  liberty  to  deter- 
mine for,  or  against  it,  in  particular  passages,  accord- 
ing to  the  sense. 

Michael.   Int.  Lect.  §    35,   39.      Marsh's  Michael,    eh.    13, 
sect.  f). 

128.  Most  anciently,  the  Greeks  expressed  the  aspi- 
ration by  the  letter  H.  When,  in  place  of  this,  they 
adopted  the  spiritus  asper,  it  appears  from  medals  and 
monuments  that  they  did  not  always  write  it,  and  never 
the  spiritus  lenis.  That  it  was  not  written  originally 
in  the  New  Testament,  appears  from  the  most  ancient 
versions  often  confounding  words  distinguished  only  by 
the  spirits  ;  and  therefore,  we  are  at  liberty  to  interpret 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HEBREW.  37 

such  words,  in  the  manner  most  suitable  to  the  sense, 
without  regarding  the  spirits  by  which  late  transcribers 
or  editors  have  restricted  them. 

Michael,  ib.  §  40.    Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  7. 

129.  Without  inquiring  whether  the  Greeks  pro- 
nounced their  language  according  to  the  accents,  or 
not,  it  is  allowed  that  they  did  not  commonly  write  the 
accents ;  and  as  none  are  found  in  any  MSS.  of  the 
New  Testament,  prior  to  the  eighth  century,  it  is  clear 
that  the  present  accents  are  not  authorized  by  the  apos- 
tles ;  and  therefore,  we  are  not  bound  to  determine  the 
signification  of  words  according  to  them. 

Michael,  ib.  §  42.     Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect,  8. 


SECT.  IV. 

Of  the  Structure  and  Genius  of  the  Hebrew  Language, 

130.  The  nature,  the  structure,  and  the  genius  of 
a  language,  are  always  congruous  to  the  situations,  the 
customs,  and  the  manners  of  the  people  who  use  it : 
and  must  be  attended  to,  in  order  to  understand  their 
writings.  In  the  Hebrew  language,  there  are  many 
peculiarities  necessary  to  be  remarked  for  interpreting 
the  books  written  in  it. 

131.  In  Hebrew,  there  are  no  neuter  nouns,  and 
consequently,  no  neuter  gender  of  adjectives.  This  is 
an  instance  of  simplicity,  and  it  introduces  peculiar 
manners  of  expression.     [N""  852.] 

Glass.  Philol.  Sacr.  1.  3.  can.  19. 


38  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HEBREW. 

132.  What  are  called  conjugations  in  Hebrew,  are 
very  unlike  to  those  of  other  languages  ;  being  different 
forms  which  any  one  verb  assumes,  by  the  addition  of 
some  letters,  in  order  to  express  the  various  modifica- 
tions of  which  the  action  denoted  by  it,  is  susceptible  ; 
and  thus  answering  to  the  several  modes,  voices,  and 
species  of  verbs  in  other  languages. 

Schultens,  Gram.  Reg.  108. 

133.  Some  have  affected  to  multiply  the  conjuga- 
tions, under  pretence  of  removing  anomalies  from  the 
language  ;  but  they  would  thus  introduce  a  minuteness 
of  distinction  inconsistent  with  the  simplicity  of  the  He- 
brew. Some  of  their  additional  conjugations,  and  even 
two  of  those  commonly  received,  are  discriminated  only 
by  the  vowel  points,  and  therefore  arbitrarily  ;  others 
of  them,  perhaps,  are  either  irregular  and  infrequent 
forms  of  words,  or  inferred  from  a  false  reading  in 
some  text  of  Scripture.  , 

Schultens,  Gram.  Heb.      Robertson's  Gram.  Heb.  1.  2.  c.  1. 
V/ilson's  Heb.  Gram.  c.  10. 

134.  Grammarians  have  generally  attempted  to  ac- 
commodate the  Hebrew  syntax  to  the  rules  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  languages ;  but  by  this  they  have  only 
perplexed  it ;  fpr  it  is,  in  almost  every  instance,  totally 
dissimilar.  Thus,  nouns  relating  to  the  same  thing 
are,  in  Hebrew,  joined  by  mere  apposition,  without  any 
regard  to  their  being  of  the  same  gender  or  number. 

Buxt.  Thesaur.  1.  2.  c.  3.      Robertson's  Gram.  1.  4.  c.  1.  §  1. 

Wilson's  Gram.  c.  20.     Glass. 
Deut.  xxii.  28.  nSina  n^:  "  a  girl,  a  virgin.'* 
Gen.  xlii.  30.  "^IK  (plur.)  B^^«n  (sing.)     "  The  man,  the  lord." 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HEBREW.  39 

So  very  often  a^nSx  nin^  "  Jehovah  God." 
Hab.  i.   16.  )hDi<0    (masc.)   n«i3    (fern.)      "Their   portion   is 
fatness." 

135.  When  a  substantive  agrees  with  an  adjective,  it 
is  placed  first  ;^  but,  if  the  adjective  stand  first,  it  is  an 
affirmation  ;  a  verb,  generally  that  of  existence,  being 
understood.^ 

Buxt.  ib.  1.  2.  c.  1.    Robertson,  ib.  §  2.     Glass,  ib.  1.  3.  t.  1. 
*  Prov.  XV.  14.  \^22  3^,  "  An  understanding  heart." 

Ver.  20.  DJn  p,  "  a  wise  son." 
2  £PsaI.  cxix.  75,  137.  N°  136.] 

136.  An  adjective  agrees  with  its  substantive,  and  a 
verb  with  its  nominative,  generally  in  gender  and  num- 
ber, but  not  always ;  for  sometimes  a  plural  substantive 
has  a  singular  verb  or  adjective ;  and,  a  collective 
substantive,  or  two  or  more  singular  substantives,  may 
have  a  plural  verb,  adjective,  or  participle. 

•    lid.  ib.     Glass,  ib.  3.  t.  4.  can.  9.  t.  3.  can.  53. 
Buxt.  ib.  1.  2.  c.  9,  10. 

Gen.  i.  1.  D^n^N  (plur.)  Nin  (sing.)  "Creavit  Dii." 
Psal.  cxix.  75,  yD^iyD  pi)i  "  Right  are  thy  judgments.'* 
Ver.  13r.  I'DSJyD  ->ty^  «  Upright  are  ti.y  judgments." 
Psal.  Ixxxix.  15.  "Blessed  is  the  people  (D^n  sing  )  that  know 

{yiV  plur.)  the  joyful  sound  ;    O  Jehovah,  in  the  light  of  thy 

countenance  they  shall  walk   (jO^n^  plur.)"     Gen.  xli.  57. 

"  All   the  earth   (^")J<n  sing.)  came  (1X3  plur.)  into  Egypt." 

But  Sam.  has  mi'i^n  plur. 
Ken.  in  loc. 
Psal.  Ixxxix.  12.  "  Tabor  and  Hermon,  in  thy  name  they  shall 

rejoice"  (1j:t  plur.) 
Ver.  11.  "The  world  and  its  fulness,  thou  hast  founded  them" 

(Djino^  plur.  aff.) 

137.  As  the  Hebrews  do  not  distinguish  the  cases  of 
nouns  by  varying  the  termination,  they  can  have  no 


40  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HEBREW. 

rules  for  the  government  of  nouns  ;  they  have  not  even 
particles  for  regularly  marking  a  particular  case  ;  those 
that  are  commonly  reckoned  such,  being  truly  prepo- 
sitions, which  have  a  variety  of  significations. 

138.  The  only  government  of  nouns,  producing  a 
change  of  termination,  is  what  is  called  the  constructed 
state ;  which  is  more  properly  a  sort  of  composition  ; 
for  the  change  of  termination  accelerates  the  pronun- 
ciation, and  it  is  made  in  the  governing  word ;  but 
this  form  of  expression  has  all  the  same  varieties  of 
force,  as  the  government  of  a  genitive  in  in  other  lan- 
guages. 

Buxt.  Thes.  1.  2.  c.  3.  reg.  1.     Glass,  ib.  1.  3.  t.  1.  can.  SO. 

Ezra.  iii.  7.  ti*"fi3  iV'J-O,  "  according  to  the  decree  of  Cyrus  ;" 
i.  e.  given  bj  him. 

Gen.  iii.  21.  m;?  niJnD,  "  coats  (made)  of  skins." 

Psal.  xliv.  22.  nnDD  |^iO,  "as  sheep  of  (intended  for)  slaugh- 
ter.'' •  • 

Gen.  ii.  9.  a"nn  )iV,  "  The  tree  of  (giving)  life." 

Prov.  i.  7.  mn'  n«n%  "The  fear  of  Jehovah,"  as  its  object. 

Exod.  iv.  10.  an^T  iy\s',  "  A  man  of  words."  i.  e.  an  eloquent 
man. 

139.  The  government  of  the  affix  pronouns,  by 
verbs,  in  like  manner  a  species  of  composition. 

140.  Almost  all  the  other  regimens  in  the  Hebrew, 
are  by  means  of  prepositions  ;  and  are,  therefore,  en- 
tirely resolvable  into  the  various  significations  of  the 
prepositions. 

Buxt.  Thes.l.  2.  c.  11.     Glass,  ib.l.  3.  t.  1.  can.  31. 

141.  It  is  not,  perhaps,  strictly  true,  that  all  the 
primitive  words,  or  roots,  in  Hebrew,  consist  of  three 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HEBREW.  41 

letters ;  but  very  many  of  them  do ;  and  this  regular- 
ity is  a  mark  of  its  being  a  simple  and  original  lan- 
guage, not  one  made  up  by  the  mixture  of  several. 

142.  It  is  whimsical  to  pretend  that  the  Hebrew 
language  contained  as  many  roots  as  there  are  possible 
combinations  of  three  letters,  and  consequently,  was 
singularly  copious  ;  for  no  language  was  ever  formed 
with  such  mathematical  exactness.  Men  form  words 
only  as  they  have  occasion  for  them  ;  and  there  was 
nothing  in  the  situation  of  the  Hebrews  that  could  lead 
them  to  form  a  language  remarkably  copious.  Yet  it 
was  not,  on  the  other  hand,  remarkably  scanty ;  and  it 
is  certain  that  they  had  many  roots  which  do  not  now 
appear  in  the  bible. 

Schultens. 

143.  It  is  commonly  affirmed,  that  all  the  Hebrew 
primitives  are  verbs ;  and  it  is  evident  that,  at  least, 
most  of  them  are  such.  This  is  another  mark  of  its 
being  a  simple  and  original  language ;  for  verbs  are 
expressive  of  the  powers  and  qualities  of  things,  as  in 
act  or  exertion,  in  which  case  they  are  most  striking, 
and  therefore  would  be  first  taken  notice  of,  and  ob- 
tain names. 

144.  It  requires  abstraction,  to  conceive  the  power 
by  itself,  separate  from  its  being  exerted ;  therefore 
adjectives,  which  express  a  power  as  quiescent,  would 
be  formed  later  than  verbs,  and  naturally  derived  from 
them.  In  Hebrew,  they  are  thus  derived ;  and  they 
are  very  few,  which  proceeds  from  the  people  being 

little  addicted  to  abstraction,  and  has  produced  many 
6 


4^  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HEBREW. 

methods  of  supplying  their  place  ;    and  these  form  pe- 
culiar idioms  in  that  language. 

145.  It  was  natural  for  men  to  denominate  sub- 
stances from  some  of  their  powers  or  qualities,  the 
exertion  of  which  had  been  most  striking  to  them  ;  and 
consequently,  to  derive  their  substantive  nouns  from 
verbs  ;  and  it  is  so  in  the  Hebrew  tongue. 

146.  The  first  words  of  every  language  express 
objects  of  sense.  The  Hebrew  verbs  would,  therefore, 
originally  signify  the  actions  or  motions  of  bodies;  and 
they  would  come  to  have  other  significations,  by  being 
transferred  to  these  from  that  original  sense. 

S:3N,  1 .  To  wither,  Isa.  xxiv.  4.  "  The  earth  mourneth  (with- 
ereth)  and  fadeth  away ;  the  world  languisheth  (contrast) 
and  fadeth  away."     2.  To  mourn  or  pine  away  with  grief. 

147.  In  a  language  formed  in  ryde  times,  it  is  nat- 
ural, likewise,  to  expect,  that  the  primitives  or  verbs 
would  express  very  particular  ideas,  the  motion  or  ex- 
ertion of  a  power  as  it  appears  in  one  object,  or  one 
species  of  objects ;  and  from  this,  would  be  transferred 
to  other  more  general  senses.  This  is  the  case  with 
the  Hebrew;  it  necessarily  renders  the  language  very 
tropical ;  and  it  occasions  the  idioms  in  which  words  of 
the  same  original  are  conjoined. 

Warburt.  Div.  Leg.     Blair,  ib. 
^DD  (prim.)  «  To  smear  with  pitch."     (Sec.)  "  To  atone." 
j;iT  yni  "  Seeding  seed,"  for  "  producing  seed." 

148.  It  is  by  discovering  the  primary  signification  of 
a  root,  that  its  secondary  senses  can  be  accounted  for; 
for  they  have  all  some  analogy  to  it,  though  not,  per- 
haps, to  one  another. 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HEBREW.  43 

133,  (prim.)  "To  smear  with  pitch,"  (Sect.)  1."To  cover 
sin,  atone;"  2,  "To  close,"  which  now  appears  only  in 
some  of  its  derivatives. 

149.  Derivatives  are,  in  Hebrew,  formed  by  a  very 
regular  analogy,  from  the  roots,  by  the  omission  or 
the  change  of  some  of  their  letters,  or  by  the  addition 
of  other  letters  to  the  beginning,  the  middle,  or  the 
end  ;  and,  according  to  the  particular  manner  of  their 
formation,  they  have  some  correspondent  variety  of 
signification. 

Wilson,  Gram.  c.  17.    Schultens,  Gram. 

150.  It  is  only  the  root  of  the  verb  that  is  properly 
simple  ;  all  the  other  parts  of  it  are  compounds  of  that 
with  other  words,  especially  pronouns ;  which  gives 
great  regularity  and  significance  to  the  conjugations. 

151.  The  Hebrew  has  few  compound  verbs,  though 
several  compound  nouns;  but  it  never  compounds 
these  with  the  negative  particle ;  and  this  occasions 
several  idioms. 

Grammars.     Lowth  on  Isa.  x,  15.     Schultens,  ib.  reg.  122. 
Hence  a  negative  particle  with  ^D  "  all,"  makes  an  universal 

negation.    Psal.  cxliii.  2. 
^n-'73  pn};'-A  "  No  living  man  shall  be  justified."    Glass,  ib. 

1.  3.  t.  5.  can.  19. 
Prefixed  to  nouns,  it  has  a  privative  force.      Prov.  xxx.  25. 

**  The  ants  are  a  people  (ti?  n"?)  n»)t  strong,"  i.  e.  weak.  Job 

xxvi.  2,  3.     Amos.  vi.  13. 

Lowth  ib.     Glass,  ib.  can,  20. 
By  a  natural  transition,  this  particle,  with  either  a  verb  or  ad- 
jective, comes  to  denote  a  strong  negation  or  a  contrariety. 

Exod.  XX.  7.  "  not  guiltless,"  i.  e.  very  guiltj.  Hos.  xi.  9. 

"  I  am  God  iff'ii'H^))  and  not  man,"  i.  e.  far  from  being  man. 

Isa.  V.  15.  "  As  if  the  staff  should  lift  itself  up  against  (^r  «'?) 


44  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HEBREW. 

the  not  wood,"  i.  e.  the  man  who  uses  it,  who  is  far  from 
being  wood.  [N°  885.]  ch.  xxxi.  8.  Iv.  2. 

In  analogy  to  this,  a  negative  with  an  adjective  forms  a  super- 
lative. Prov.  xviii.  5.  "  It  is  not  good  (very  bad)  to  accept 
the  person  of  the  wicked." 

Psl.  xliii.  1.  "Plead  my  cause  against  a  nation  wof  g"o«f%," 
very  ungodly.  Hos.  xiii.  13.  "A  son  not  wise,'^^  very 
unwise. 

152.  It  is  common  for  those  who  have  a  scanty 
language,  to  supply  its  defects  by  mixing  something  of 
natural  language  with  the  artificial ;  and  hence  may  be 
deduced  many  peculiarities  of  the  Hebrew. 

Warburt.  Div.  Leg.  vol.  3.  p.  97.     Blair,  ib. 

153.  Thus,  dwelling  on  a  syllable,  or  doubling  its 
consonant,  gives  it  an  emphasis  in  pronunciation,  and 
may  therefore, be  adopted  for  giving  intenseness  to  its 
signification. 

Hence  the  custom  in  Hebrew,  at  least  since  the  introduction  of 
the  present  points,  of  giving  force  to  a  word  by  a  dagesh 
forte ;  and  the  conjugations  which  are  formed  only  by  the 
insertion  of  it,  Pihhel,  Pyhhal. 

154.  In  like   manner,  redoubling  a  syllable    gives 

emphasis  and  force. 

Hence  the  nouns  formed  by  doubling  some  of  the  radicals,  often 
expressive  of  rapidity  or  repetition. 
Wilson,  Gram.  17. 
Hence  also,  several  of  the  additional  conjugations  which  some 
have  proposed,  Fehalhal,  Pihlel,  pyhlal,  Hithpahlcl. 
Schultens,  Gram.     Robertson's  Gram.  1.  2.  c.  i. 

155.  Redoubling  or  repeating  a  whole  word,  has 
the  same  effect ;  and  into  this,  many  Hebrew  idioms 
are  reducible. 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HEBREW.  45 

Glass,  ib.  1.  S.  t.  1.  can.  5.  t.  3.  can.  32,  37. 

Repetition  of  a  noun,  to  express  vehemence,  Psal.  xxii.  1.  "My 
God,  my  God."  Jer.  vii.  4.  "Trust  not  in  lying  words," 
saying,  "  The  temple  of  the  Lord,  the  temple  of  the  Lord, 
the  temple  of  the  Lord."  Or,  to  express  continuance,  Deut* 
xvi.  20.  "Ye  shall  follow  justice,  justice,"  i.  e.  constantly. 
Or,  to  express  multitude.  Gen.  xiv.  10.  "The  valley  of 
Siddim  was  slime  pits,  slime  pits,"  i.  e.  full  of  them.  Exod. 
viii.  14.     Judg.  v.  9.2.     2  Kings  iii.  16.     Joel.  iii.  14. 

Repetition  of  an  adjective  forming  its  superlative.  Eccl.  vii. 
25.     "  That  which  is  deep  deep,"  i.  e.  very  deep. 

Hence  also,  a  noun  governing  itself  forms  a  superlative.  Gen. 
ix.  25.  "  Canaan  shall  be  a  servant  of  servants,"  i.  e.  in  the 
most  abject  slavery. 

Thus  also,  a  verb  governing  itself  in  the  infinitive,  expresses 
certainty  or  vehemence.  Gen.  ii.  17.  "  Thou  shalt  die  to 
die,"  i.  e.  certainly. 

And  in  like  manner,  a  verb  govering  a  noun  derived  from  it- 
self, or  analogous  in  sense,  is  emphatical.  "To  die  the 
death,  to  fear  with  fear." 

156.  Men,  while  rude  and  unrefined,  do  not  study 
to  express  themselves  with  accuracy ;  and  from  this 
principle,  many  Hebrew  idioms  may  be  accounted 
for. 

Hence,  some  of  their  particles  have  a  great  multitude  of  signifi- 
cations ;  1  has  75  ;  it  always  connects,  but  in  very  different 
relations. 

Hence,  also,  many  circumlocutions,  substantives  for  adverbs, 
words  redundant,  definites  for  indefinites,  as  "  yesterday"  for 
any  past  time,  "  to-morrow"  for  any  future. 

A  relative  pronoun  for  a  copulative,  Eccles.  v.  17.      "It  is 
ni3'~"<i5'j«  31£3  good  which  (and)  comely." 
Glass,  ib.  1.  3.  t.  7.  can.  3,  5. 

A  passive  verb  for  the  active  of  its  correlate.  *iniJ  "  to  be  ady 
monished,  warned."  Eccl.  iv.  13  Ezek.  xxxiii.  4,  5.  "to 
take  warning,  listen  to  admonition." 


46  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HEBREW. 

One  verb  expressing,  not  strictly  the  action  intended,  but  one 
antecedent  to,  or  connected  with  it.  np'?  strictly  "  to  take," 
but  often  "  to  bring"  what  had  been  previously  taken.  Exod. 
XXV.  2.  "  That  they  take  (bring  to  me)  an  offering."  Est. 
ii.  16.  "  Esther  was  taken  (brought  unto)  king  Ahasuerus." 
(N°  871.) 
Glass,  ib.  c.  2. 

Verbs  which  denote  a  complete  action,  used  for  signifying  the 
beginning  of  it.      2  Sam.   ii.  10.       "  Ishbosheth  was  forty 
years  old  when  he  reigned,"  i.  e.  began  to  reign.  (N®  873.) 
Glass  ib   c.  3. 

On  the  other  hand,  verbs  denoting  the  beginning  o:  action, 
used  for  signifying  the  complete  action.      Isa.  Ix.  lljinnsr 
*'and   thy  gates    shall    be  opened,"  "open."   Eng,   "kept 
open." 
Glass,  ib. 

Verbs  of   doing,  signifying   only  the   continuance  of  action. 
Lev.  vi.  12.    "  The  fire  upon  the*altar  npin  shall  burn,"  con- 
tinue to  burn,  made  to  continue.     (N°  873.) 
Glass,  ib.  c.  4. 

Or  signifying  only,  the  giving  occasion  to  a  thing's  being  done. 
Gen  xlii.  33.  '*  Then  omiin  shall  ye  bri.tg  my  grey  hairs 
with  sorrow  to  the  grave,"  be,  though  undesignedly  and  in- 
voluntarily, the  occasion  of  their  falling,  &c.    (N°  882.) 

157.  But  men,  while  rude,  study  to  express  them- 
selves with  force ;  and  many  Hebrew  idioms  take  their 
rise  from  this  propensity. 

"Always"  for  "frequently."  "Eternity"  for  "a  long  dura- 
tion." A  negation  for  a  comparative.  "  Mercy  and  not 
sacrifice,"  for  "mercy  rather  than  sacrifice,"  Hos.  vi  6. 
"  Receive  my  instruction,  and  not  (rather  than)  silver  ;"  for 
it  follows,  "and  knowledge  rather  than  choice  gold."  Prov. 
viii.  10.  (N°931.) 
9^  The  nominative  absolute,  setting  the  principal  word  strongly  in 
view !  Psal.  xi.  4.  "  Jehovah  !  in  heaven  is  his  throne." 
Horsley's  Hosea,  Pref. 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HEBREW.  47 

Affirmative  verbs  for  the  negation  or  extenuation  of  their  con- 
traries ;  "  To  hate,"  for  "  not  to  love,"  or  "  to  love  less." 
Gen.  xxix.  31.  "  Leah  was  hated,"  loved  less  than  Rachel, 
ver.  SO.     (No  884.) 

Glass.  1.3.  t.  3.  can.  19. 

So,  things  are  said  to  act,  or  to  be  done,  when  it  is  only  meant, 
that  thej  are  known,  discovered,  thought  to  be,  or  acknowl- 
edged. Gen.  XXX.  13.  "  Leah  said,  the  daughters"  "•Jn^-K 
literally,  "  shall  make  me  blessed,"  reckon  me  blessed,  or  call 
me  blessed,  happy.  Eng.  (N°  883.) 
Glass,  ib.c.  17,  18. 

Hence  also,  the  superlative  formed  by  adding  any  of  the  names 
of  God.  Gen.  xxiii.  6.  "  A  prince  of  God."  Ch.  xxx.  8. 
«  Wrestlings  of  God."  Ruth  ii.  20,  "  Blessed  to  the  Lord," 
very  blessed.  Jon.  iii.  3.  "Great  to  the  Lord,"  very 
great. 

158.  Sometimes,  these  two  propensities,  to  speak 
with  force,  but  without  precision,  operate  in  conjunc- 
tion ;  and  there  are  some  Hebrew  idioms  which  bear 
plain  marks  of  that  conjunction. 

Things  are  said  to  be  done,  when  it  is  only  meant  that  they 
are  notified,  declared,  or  foretold.  Gen,  xxvii.  37.  I'nDty  "I 
have  made  him  thy  lord,"  declared,  foretold  that  he  shall  be. 
(No  883.) 

Glass.  1.  3.  t.  3.  can.  15. 
Verbs  of  acting,  signify  a  number  of  related  conceptions,  none 
of  which  come  fully  up  to  action ;  as  only,  the  faculty  or 
power  of  acting.     Gen.  xvi.  10.    "  It  shall  not  be  numbered," 
cannot  be.    Psal.  xxii.  18.  "SDK  "  I  will  tell  (may  tell)  all  my 
bones,"  (N"  876.) 
Glass,  ib.  can.  5. 
The  right  of  acting.      Exod.  xxxiii.  5.  nSjTK  "  I  will  (justly 
might)  come  up  into  the  midst  of  thee.  yn'^Jl  and  1  will 
(might)  consume  thee."  (N°  877.) 
Glass,  ib.  can.  6. 
The  duty  of  acting.  Mai.  i.  6.     <«  A  son  'y^y  honoureth  his 


48  LANGUAGE  OF  THE  NfiW  TESTAMENT. 

father,''  not,  *'  always  honours,"  but  ought,  is  obliged  to 
honour  him.  (No  878.) 
Glass,  ib. 
The  will  to  act.    Exod.  xii.  48.      "  If  a  stranger  nwi  will  keep 
the  passover,*'  desire,  incline  to  keep  it ;    for  he  must  first  be 
circumcised.  (N°  879.) 
Glass,  ib.  can.  7. 
The  endeavour  or  tendency  to  act.    Gen.  xxxvii.  21.    «  Reuben 
heard,  inVif^  and  he  delivered  him  out  of  their  hands,"  en- 
deavoured to  deliver,  ver.  22,  &c.  (N°  879.) 
Glass,  ib.  can.  8. 
A  command  to  act.     Gen.  xl.  22.     "  Pharaoh  hanged  the  chief 
baker,"  commanded  him  to  be  hanged.  (N°  881.) 
Glass,  ib-  can.  22. 
Or,  a  permission  to  act.      Dettt.  ii.  28.  "JT^l^n,  literally,  "  thou 
shalt  make  me  provide  bread  for  money."    Eng.  "  sell  me," 
permit  me  to  buy.     (N°  881.) 


SECT.  V. 

Of  the  Language  of  the  New  Testament, 

159.  The  Greek  language,  in  which  the  New  Tes- 
tament is  written,  is,  in  many  particulars  of  its  struc- 
ture and  genius,  very  different  from  the  Hebrew ;  but 
it  has  been  so  often  and  so  fully  explained,  that  it  will 
not  be  necessary  for  us  to  examine  it  minutely. 

160.  On  account  of  its  being,  at  that  time,  the  lan- 
guage most  universally  known,  it  was  the  fittest  in 
w^hich  the  New  Testament  could  have  been  written. 

Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  4.  §   1. 

161.  The  language  of  the  New  Testament  is  not 
pure  Greek,  but  Hellenistical,  formed  by  a  mixture  of 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.       49 

oriental  idioms  and  expressions  with  those  which  are 
properly  Greek. 

Simon,  Hist.  Crit.  N.  T.  p.  1.  c.  27.      Michael,  ib.  §  6. 

Macknight  on  Epistles,  Ess.  4.  and  Supplement  to  Ess.  4. 

Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  4.  §  3. 

162.  Most  of  the  words,  however,  and  many  of  the 
phrases  of  the  New  Testament,  are  pure  Greek  ;  and 
so  far  as  they  are,  they  must  be  explained  according  to 
the  usage  of  the  classical  writers,  and,  consequently, 
cannot  be  understood  without  having  recourse  to  their 
works  ;  for  which  reason,  collections  of  correspondent 
terms  and  phrases  from  them,  with  the  sense  in  which 
they  use  them,  have  very  properly  and  successfully 
been  made  by  several  learned  men,  and  applied  to  the 
illustration  of  the  New  Testament. 

Grotius  in  Comment,  passim.  Raphel.  Eisner.  Palairet.  Wolfii. 
curse  Philolog.  in  N.  T.  Bos. 

Acts  xxvii.  13.  "  Tioosing,  they  sailed  «5-c-«w  (found  only  here) 
Tjjv  Kf  jjT>}»,  nearer,  close  to,  Crete." 
Eisner.  Palair.  Bos.  Raphel.  in  loc. 

Rom.  1.31.  2  Tim.  iii.  3.  u^opyoi,  utttov^i,  eeysj^ts^^oi,  occur  not 
elsewhere,  but  frequently  in  Greek  v/riters,  "  without  natural 
affection,  covenant-breakers,  fierce." 

Mark  xiv.  72.  Kui  eTrifiuXm  sKhecis,  frequent  in  the  N.  T.  but  in 
no  sense  suitable  here — very  differently  explained.  (Critic,  in 
loc.)  Eng.  "  When  he  thought  tliereon  ;"  but  rather,  "  hav- 
ing gone  out,"  (Polyb.)  which  agrees  with  Matthew  and 
Luke.    Raphel. 

Acts  XV ii.  31.  II/5-/V  TretpccG-p^av,  Most  obviously,  "  Giving  faith," 
but  not  true,  ^ts-ts,  "a  proof  or  argument,"  (Aristot.  Rhetor, 
1.  i.  c.  1.)  ^i^iv  Tcepex^i^j  "to  confirm,  prove,  give  proof,  ren- 
der credible,"  (Polyb.  Plutarch.)  So  Eng. — "given  assur= 
ajice."  Raphel. 
7 


50       LANGUAGE  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

163.  In  the  language  of  the  New  Testament,  all  the 
dialects  occur  ;  but  the  attic  is  predominant,  and  runs 
through  all  the  books  of  it. 

Wysii  Dialect.  Sacra* 

164.  But,  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  being 
Jews,  would,  in  writing  Greek,  naturally  run  into  the 
idioms  of  their  own  language,  or  introduce  hebraisms 
or  syriasms ;  which  have,  however,  been,  without 
reason,  denied  by  some,  and  reckoned  much  more  nu- 
merous than  they  really  are,  by  others. 

Pfochenii  Diatrib.  de  Linguse  N.  T.  Puritate. 
Fechtii  Pr«f.  in  Raphel.  Michael,  ib.  §  7—10. 
Macknight,  ib.     Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  4.  §  5,  6. 

165.  Such  idioms  can  be  illustrated  only  from  the 
oriental  languages,  the  study  of  which  is  thus  strongly 
recommended,  as  being  necessary  even  for  understand- 
ing the  New  Testament ;  and  from  the  version  of  the 
70,  which  is  written  in  the  same  idiom.  (No.  251.) 

166.  There  are  in  the  New  Testament,  some  He- 
brew and  Syriac  words. 

Michael,  ib.  §  6. 

(Heb.)  AfjLy^v,  "truly,  so  be  it."  Glass.  Philol.  1.  3.  t.  5.  can.  16. 

Heylin.  Theolog.  Lect,  p.  131. 
AA>.i5A«i«,  "  Praise  the  Lord."  Glass,  ib. 
Zi^dux,  «  Tares." 

(Syr.)  Mei)M,ft6>v«5,  "  riches,"  Erasm.  Drus.  Grot. 
M«/)«»  et^oi.     iBome,   "  The  Lord  is  come  ;"    others,  "  In  the 

coming  of  the  Lord ;"    others,  "  Excommunicated   in  the 

highest  sense,"  which  was  termed  xnciy  ;  others,  in  general, 

"  Devoted  to  destruction." 

Critici  in   1   Cor.  xvi,  22.     Tremell.    Vorstius.    Locke. 
Macknight. 


USE  OF  THE  ORIGINAL  LANGTJAGESh  61 

167.  There  are  likewise  Greek  words  used  in  a 
Hebrew  or  Sjriac  sense. 

Michael,  ib. 

AvvoifAiq,  "  A  miracle." 

E/5  n/xas,  "  for  ever."  1  Cor.  xv.  54. 

Capell.    Grot.     Crell.     Macknight. 
P8}/t6«,  «  A  thing."     Luke  i.  37.  ii.  15.     Acts  v.  32. 
Mat.  iv.  4.  H.  R.      Essay  for  a  new  Translation,  p.  2.  c.  4.  § 

S,  4. 
EvariTuo-ee,  "  Hearken,"  Acts  ii.  14. 
Grot.    Wjss.  Dialect.  Sacra. 

168.  There  are  in  the  New  Testament,  Hebrew  and 
Syriac  constructions. 

Michael,  ib.    Wyss.  ib. 

169.  There  are  in  the  New  Testament,  Hebrew  and 
Sjriac  idioms  and  phrases. 

Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  4.  §  5. 


SECT.  VI. 

Of  the  Use  of  the  Original  Languages  in  Criticism* 

170.  The  discovery  of  the  true  sense  of  scripture 
is  evidently  the  purpose  to  which  knowledge  of  the 
original  languages  is  principally  and  most  directly  ap- 
plicable ;  and  the  manner  of  applying  it  to  this  purpose 
being  the  same  as  that  of  coming  to  the  understanding 
of  any  language,  to  enlarge  upon  it  would  be  unnec- 
essary. 

171.  It  has  been  made  a  question,  Whether  know- 
ledge of  these  languages  ought  to  be  at  all  applied  to 


52  USE  OF  THE  ORIGINAL  LANGUAGES. 

the  discovery  of  the  true  reading ;  some  asserting,  that 
no  correction  of  the  ordinary  text,  by  critical  conjec- 
tures founded  on  the  nature  of  these  languages,  is  at 
all  allowable ;  and  producing  several  arguments  in  sup- 
port of  their  assertion. 

172.  But  others  have  claimed  the  liberty  of  making 
emendations  by  critical  conjectures  ;  and,  though  they 
have  often  carried  this  liberty  too  far,  yet  they  have 
shown,  that  the  arguments  urged  against  it  only  con- 
demn the  abuse  of  it,  but  prove  not  that  it  can  never 
be  legitimately  used. 

Houbig.  Prol.  c.  3.  a.  4. 

173.  If,  among  different  readings  found  in  MSS. 
one  be  agreeable  to  the  nature  of  the  language  and 
ajiother  not,  the  former  ought  certainly  to  be  preferred, 

1 74.  When  a  reading  occurs  (though  it  were  in  all 
MSS.)  which  is  a  plain  barbarism  or  solecism,  it  is- 
undoubtedly  a  mistake  of  transcribers,  and  should  be 
corrected  according  to  the  rules  of  the  language. 

Houbig.  ib,  c.  4.  reg.  7,  8,  10. 

1 75.  When  a  passage  cannot  be  reconciled  to  the 
grammar  of  the  language,  without  supplying  words 
which  that  language  never  uses  to  omit,  it  may  be  de- 
termined that  the  passage  has  been  corrupted. 

Houbig.  ib.  reg.  9. 

1 76.  When  an  expression  is  clearly  inconsistent  with 
the  rules  of  the  language,  it  may  be  held  a  corruption, 


USE  OF  THE  ORIGINAL  LANGUAGES.  55 

even  though  we  should  not  be  able  to  discover  how  it 
ought  to  be  corrected. 
Iloubig.  ib.  reg.  11. 

177.  But  these  principles  ought  to  be  applied  with 
great  caution,  and  under  several  limitations.  Thus, 
corrections  supported  solely  by  the  nature  of  the  lan- 
guage, ought  to  be  admitted  only  when  they  are  abso- 
lutely necessary ;  and,  therefore,  a  place  is  not  to  be 
looked  upon  as  corrupted,  or  corrected  on  conjecture, 
merely  because  it  might  be  more  commodiously  ex- 
pressed. 

Houbig.  ib.  reg,  12.  &  p.  134.  caut.  2. 

178.  When  two  readings  occur,  one  of  which  is 
suitable  to  the  most  common  usage  of  the  language, 
the  other  agreeable  to  a  real,  but  less  common  usage  of 
it,  the  latter  ought  to  be  preferred ;  for  it  is  not  so 
probable  that  a  transcriber  should,  by  mistake,  have 
fallen  into  it,  as  into  the  other. 

Michael,  ib.  §  15. 

179.  For  detecting  mistakes  repugnant  to  the  nature 
of  the  language,  and  for  correcting  them,  a  very  thor- 
ough acquaintance  with  that  language  is  absolutely 
necessary  ;  and  without  this,  the  attempt  will  produce 
only  blunders. 

180.  The  greater  number  of  independent  MSS. 
there  are  of  any  part  of  Scripture,  and  the  nearer  they 
reach  to  the  time  of  its  being  written,  the  less  scope 
there  is  for  conjectural  emendations  from  the  nature  of 


54  USE  OF  THE  ORIGINAL  LANGUAGES. 

the  language ;  for  the  less  chance  there  is  that  a  cor- 
ruption should  have  crept  into  all  the  copies  :  for  the 
first  of  which  reasons,  greater  latitude  is  allowable 
with  respect  to  the  Apocalypse  than  the  other  books  of 
the  New  Testament ;  and  for  both,  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, than  in  the  New. 

Michael.  §  31.    Kennic.  Diss.  Gen. 


KINDRED  LANGUAGES^  65 


CHAP.  III. 


The  Kindred  Languages. 

181.  Every  language  may  be,  in  many  instances, 
illustrated,  and  the  books  written  in  it  explained,  from 
other  languages  derived  from  the  same  original,  and 
akin  to  it. 

182.  The  Hebrew  language,  in  particular,  stands 
in  need  of  illustration  by  this  means,  and  is  capable  of 
it;  and  the  light  hence  derived,  will  tend  directly  to 
the  explication  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  indirectly 
likewise  to  that  of  the  Hellenistical  Greek  of  the  New. 

183.  The  Greek,  though  standing  much  less  in  need 
of  it,  may,  perhaps,  sometimes  receive  illustration  from 
other  languages. 


SECT.  I. 

What  Languages  are  Useful, 

184.  The  languages  useful  for  illustrating  the  He- 
brew, are  those  which,  along  with  itself,  are  dialects 
immediately  derived  from  the  primitive  language,  and 
which  preserve  nearly  the  same  structure  and  analogy. 

Schultens,  Orig.  Heb.  T,  2.  c.  1. 


56  KINDRED  LANGUAGES. 

185.  These  dialects  are  reducible  to  two  principal 
ones,  the  Araniean,  and  the  Arabic. 

Schulteus,  ib. 

186.  The  Araniean  is  subdivided  into  two  branches, 
the  Chaldaic,  and  the  Sjriac  ;  the  former  of  which 
was  the  Language  of  the  Babylonians ;  and  it  the 
Jews  learned  during  their  captivity,  retained  in  a  great 
measure  afterwards,  and  used  in  their  Targums,  and 
other  most  ancient  books. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  2.  c.  IS.     Schultens,  ib.  §  S,  9.     Walton,  Prol- 
S.  §  24.     Prol.  12.  §  2. 

187.  In  this  language,  some  parts  of  the  later  books 
of  Scripture  are  written ;  for  the  understanding  of 
which,  it  is,  therefore,  immediately  necessary  ;  but  it 
may  likewise  throw  light  on  the  other  parts  written  in 
Hebrew ;  it  did,  in  fact,  contribute  very  much  to  the 
preservation  or  the  recovery  of  the  knowledge  of  the 
Hebrew  tongue  ;  and  it  would  be  of  the  greatest  utility, 
if  there  were  more  remains  of  it, 

Simon,  ib.     Schultens,  ib.     Walton,  Prol.  12.  §  3. 

188.  The  Syriac  is  very  analogous  to  the  Chaldaic, 
being  little  more  than  the  same  language,  in  the  form 
which  it  assumed  at  a  later  period,  and  expressed  in  a 
different  character.  It  is  in  it,  that  the  Syriac  versions 
of  the  Scriptures  are  written. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  15.     Schultens,  ib.  §  10,  13.    Walton,  Prol.  13.  § 
2,  3,  4. 

189.  It,  too,  being  highly  analogous  to  the  Hebrew, 
would  contribute  much  to  the  illustration  of  Scripture, 
were  it  not  that  there  are  very  few  books  extant  in  it. 

Walton,  ib. 


KINDRED  LANGUAGES.  5T 

190.  The  other  principal  dialect,  the  Arabic,  is 
somewhat  more  remote  from  the  Hebrew,  but  analo- 
gous enough  for  fitting  it  to  throw  light  upon  it ;  and, 
its  being  still  a  living  language,  and  one  in  which 
there  is  a  multitude  of  books,  makes  it  very  useful  for 
that  purpose. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  2.  c.  16.  Schultens,  ib.  §  14—21.  Oratio  de 
Lingua  Arab.  Bochart.  Hier.  Prsef.  Phaleg.  1.  i.  c.  15. 
Walton,  Prol.  14.  §  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  14. 

191.  From  it,  the  Rabbins  received  some  assistance 
in  restoring  the  Hebrew  language,  but  not  much ;  it 
has  been  more  extensively,  and  very  successfully,  ap- 
plied by  several  Christian  writers,  to  the  illustration  of 
Scripture. 

JBochart.     L.  de   Dieu.     Fuller.     Pococke.     Schultens,  Orio-. 
Heb. 

192.  Besides  these  principal  dialects,  there  are  some 
less  considerable  branches. 

193.  The  Samaritan  dialect  is  a  mixture  of  Hebrew 
with  the  several  languages  of  the  colonies  transported 
into  Samaria ;  but  little  light  can  be  derived  from  it, 
because  there  are  very  few  books  written  in  it. 

194.  The  Ethiopic,  or  Abyssinian  language,  has  a 
great  affinity  to  all  the  oriental  dialects,  but  greatest  to 
the  Arabic,  from  which  it  is  immediately  derived  ;  and 
it  has  been  applied  in  some  degree  to  the  illustration  of 
Scripture. 

Simon,  ib.c.  16.    Bochart.    L.  de  Dieu.    Hottinger.    Ludolf. 
Hist.  Ethiopic.  Comment.    Schultens,  ib.  §  22,  23.    Walton, 
Prol.  15.  §  6,  7,  8. 
8 


58  CONSULTING  KINDRED  LANGUAGES. 

195.  The  Rabbinical  Hebrew  is  a  mixture  of  seve- 
ral languages,  which  cannot  be  of  great  use  for  illus- 
trating Scripture,  but  ought  not,  perhaps,  to  be  totally 
despised. 

Schultens,  ib.  §  5,  6,  7. 

196.  The  Latin  is  near  akin  to  the  Greek;  which, 
however,  needs  little  illustration  from  it. 


SECT.  IL 

The  Necessity  and  Propriety  of  seeking  Assistance 
from  the  Kindred  Languages. 

197.  The  Old  Testament,  comprehending  books 
on  different  subjects,  by  many  different  authors  and  in 
very  different  ages,  does  contain  more  of  the  Hebrew 
language  than  any  volume  of  the  same  size  contains  of 
any  other  language. 

198.  Yet,  being  the  only  book  extant  in  Hebrew,  it 
is  impossible  that  it  should  contain  the  whole  of  that 
language;  and  that  it  does  not,  there  is  internal  evi- 
dence, from  its  having  roots  without  their  derivatives, 
or  derivatives  without  their  roots  ;  besides,  that  it  can- 
not be  supposed  sufficient  for  ascertaining  the  precise 
signification  of  all  the  words  found  in  it,  which  seemSy 
in  some  instances,  to  have  been  very  early  lost  by  the 
Jews. 

Schultens  de  Defect.  Ling.  Heb.  Orig.  Heb.  T.  1.  Intr.  T. 
2.  Intr. 

Even  the  70  version  retains  some  Hebrew  words,  as  not  know- 
ing how  to  translate  them.  2  Kings  xii.  7.  12.  BfJ^f*.  ch. 
xxiii.  7.  Koc^ijTifA.     1  Chron.  xxix.  2.  erouf^t..    Job.  xxxix.  31. 


USES  OF  THE  KINDRED  LANGUAGES.  59 

199.  From  these  circumstances  arises  a  necessity  of 
having  recourse  to  the  languages  most  akin  to  it,  that 
from  them  we  may,  as  much  as  possible,  supply  the 
deficiences  of  the  Hebrew,  as  it  stands  in  the  Bible,  and 
learn  its  full  extent. 

200.  The  propriety  of  illustrating  the  language  of 
the  bible,  from  those  akin  to  it,  arises  from  their  affin- 
ity to  it  in  every  material  respect,  being  so  great,  as  to 
fit  them  for  throwing  very  considerable  light  on  the 
remains  of  the  Hebrew. 

201.  It  is  by  those  who  understood  not  the  original 
dialects,  or  understood  them  but  imperfectly,  that  the 
propriety  of  applying  them  to  the  illustration  of  Scrip- 
ture, has  been  called  in  question  ;  they  who  understood 
them  best,  have  always  agreed  that  the  application  of 
them  is  a  legitimate  mean  of  criticism,  and  of  very 
great  utility. 

202.  The  particular  objections  urged  against  that 
application,  only  prove  that  it  may  be  abused,  and 
ought  to  be  made  with  proper  limitations ;  but  do  not 
conclude  against  the  use  of  it 


SECT.  III. 

Uses  of  the  Kindred  Languages  in  determirmig  the  true 
Reading. 

203.  The  Kindred  Languages  may  lead  us  to  dis- 
cover the  occasions  of  such  false  readings  as  transcrib- 
ers, unskilled  in  the  Hebrew,  but  accustomed  to  some 


60  USES  OF  THE  KINDRED  LANGUAGES. 

of  the  Other  dialects,  have  made,  by  writing  words  in 
the  form  of  that  dialect,  instead  of  the  Hebrew  form. 

Houbig.  Prol.  p.  28. 

204.  The  knowledge  of  the  kindred  languages  often 
serves  to  prevent  ill-grounded  conjectures  of  a  place 
being  corrupted,  by  shewing  that  the  common  reading 
is  susceptible  of  the  very  sense  which  that  place  re- 
quires. 

205.  When  different  readings  are  found  in  copies  of 
the  Bible,  the  kindred  languages  may  sometimes  assist 
us  in  judging  which  of  them  ought  to  be  preferred. 

206.  If  these  languages  can  be  at  all  permitted  to 
suggest  a  conjectural  emendation  of  the  text,  it  ought 
to  be  with  the  most  cautious  restrictions,  and  only  when 
they  shew  clearly  how  the  present  reading  might  have 
been  naturally  introduced. 

SECT.  IV. 

Uses  of  the  Kindred  Languages  in  Interpreting 
Scripture, 

207.  It  is  chiefly  to  the  interpretation  of  Scripture, 
that  the  Kindred  Languages  are  applicable  ;  and  for 
this  purpose  they  are  useful  in  many  ways. 

208.  They  discover  many  roots  or  primitives  which 
are  not  found  in  the  Bible,  though  their  derivatives 
occur  there ;  and  by  doing  so,  point  out  the  signi- 
fications of  these  derivatives,  and  either  clear  the  sense, 
or  improve  the  beauty,  of  the  passages  in  which  they 
occur. 


USES  OF  THE  KINDRED  LANGUAGES.  61 

Schultens  de  Defect.  Ling.  Heb.  c.  1.  §  11,  &c.    Orig.  Heb. 

|n'  (Arab.)  1.  "To  continue  running,"  as  water.  2.  "To 
continue  (in  general)  to  endure,  to  be  permanent."  3. 
(metaph.)  "  To  be  fat."  4,  (metaph.)  «  To  be  inexhaustibly 
rich.*'  Hence  the  adjective  jn*K,  rendered  "hard,  rough, 
strong,  brave,  severe,  powerful,"  &c.  signifies, 

1.  "Ever-flowing"  Amos  v.  24.  "Let  judgment  run  down 
as  waters,  and  righteousness  as  a  mighty  stream y'^^  an  ever- 
flowing  river.  Psal.  Ixxiv.  15.  "Thou  driedst  uip  mighty 
waters,^^  the  everflowing  rivers.'  Exod.  xiv.  27.  '■  The  sea 
returned  to  his  stvength,^^  uninterrupted  flowing. 

2.  Durable,  permanent"  Mic.  vi.  2.  "  Hear,  je  strong  (dura- 
ble) foundations  of  the  earth." 

2.  "Fat,  full  of  moisture."  Jobxxxiii.  19.  "  Man  is  chastened 
with  pain  upon  his  bed,  and  the  multitude  of  his  bones  strong;'^ 
Eng.  "bones  with  strong  pain  ;^^  rather,  "  multitude  of  his 
fat  bones  " 

4. "  Inexhaustibly  ricli  and  prosperous."  Job  xii.  19.  "  And 
overthroweth  the  mighty;^'  but  they  are  spoken  of  v.  21. 
here,  the  opulent.  So  Num.  xxiv.  21.  Jer.  xlix.  19.  ch. 
1.44. 

Schultens,  Orig.  Heb.  T.  1.  c.  8. 

209.  The  Kindred  Languages  point  out  roots,  by 
showing  such  to  be  in  use,  which,  though  found  in  the 
Bible,  have  been  overlooked,  whose  derivatives  have 
therefore  been  irregularly  ascribed  to  other  roots,  and 
w^hose  signification  has  been  erroneously  either  trans- 
ferred to  these  others,  or  borrowed  from  them,  or  is 
left  fluctuating  and  uncertain. 

Schultens,  Orig.  Heb.  T.  1.  c.  4. 

2;V3  (Arab.)  but  overlooked  in  Hebrew,  and  confounded  with 
Via,  yet  occurs  thrice.  It  signifies  "  to  shatter,  to  break 
into  pieces,  to  break  with  scattering  or  dissipation  ;"  which 
suits  all  these  places.  Jer.  xxiii.  29.  "  Is  not  my  word  like 
a  hammer  (i*:f3')  that  (it)  breaketh  in  pieces  the  rock  ?  Habak. 


62  USES  OF  THE  KINDRED  LANGUAGES. 

iii.  6.  «  He  beheld  and  drove  asunder  the  nations ;  (ivvari'i) 
and  the  everlasting  mountains  were  scattered,'^  broken 
fn  pieces — a  bolder  figure.  Job  xvi  12.  "  He  hath  taken 
me  by  my  neck  ('Jy£3^i3'i)  and  hath  shaken  (broken)  me  to 
pieces." 

210.  These  languages  ascertain  the  precise  significa- 
tion of  roots,  and  consequently,  of  their  derivatives, 
which  are  acknow^ledged  in  the  bible,  and  perhaps 
occur  frequently  ;  but,  whose  significations  have  been 
fixed  only  by  conjecture,  and  are,  on  that  account,  in- 
definite, precarious,  or  fluctuating. 

Schultens  de  Defect.  Ling.  Heb.  ib.  §  43,  &c. 

Via,  with  which  i'i'iJ  (No.  209)  has  been  confounded,  has  been 
rendered,  "  to  scatter,  disperse  dissipate."  But  in  Arabic 
(prim.)  "  to  overflow,"  (sec.)  "  to  abound,  to  weep  plentiful- 
ly." 2  Sam.  xviii.  8.  "  The  battle  was  there  (nivsj)  scat- 
tered over  (had  overflowed)  the  face  of  all  the  country ;"  a 
beautiful  figure  from  a  river.  Job  xl.  11.  :£2n  «  Cast  abroad 
the  rage  (nn:ij^  the  swellings)  of  thy  wrath.*'  {Make  the 
swellings  of  thy  wrath  to  overflow)  a  beautiful  figure.  Zech. 
i.  17.  (Eng.)  "My  cities  through  prosperity  shall  yet  be 
spread  abroad:^  Not  suitable,  for  HJlflDn  is  active.  (My 
cities  shall  yet  overflow  with  good.) 

Schultens,  ib.  T.  1.  c.  4. 

VDJ  occurs  often,  is  rendered  inconstantly ;  sometimes  "  to 
scatter,  to  scatter  by  breaking  to  pieces,"  which  are  the 
senses  of  iMS  and  !i:f£3.  But  Arab.  Syr.  Chald.  "  to  shake,  to 
shake  out  by  motion  ;"  so  sometimes  by  70.  Aqu.  and  Theod. 
rendered  iKTimTru,  which  suits  all  the  texts.  1  Kings  v.  9. 
«  I  will  cause  them  (the  trees  brought  by  sea  in  floats)  to  be 
discharged  ;*'  the  figure  lost— ("  shake  them  out  of  the 
floats.")  70.  eKTivec^cj.  Chald.  pj*D-iX  projiciam  eas.  Isa. 
XXX.  30.  "  The  Lord  shall  shew  the  lighting  down  of  his 
arm,  with  the  flame  of  a  devouring  fire,  (>f£33)  scattering,^^ 
("shaking  out;")  the  world  by  trembling  shaken  out  of  its 


USES  OF  THE  KINDRED  LANGUAGES.  63 

place — (a  noble  image)  "  and  tempest,  and  hailstones."  Gen. 
ix.  19.  "  Of  them  was  the  whole  earth  overspread^  (nifflJ.) 
"  From  them  the  whole  earth  shook  out  its  whole  offspring  ;" 
ex  his   excussit    se   universa  terra — a  beautiful   metaphor. 
Judg.   vii.    19.      1  Sam.  xiii.    11.      Isa.  xi.    12.   xxxiii.   3. 
xxvii.    9.      Jer.   xiii.   14.   xxii.   28.    li.   20.       Psal.    ii.    9. 
cxxxvii.  9. 
Schultens,  ib. 
jba   occurs   five  times   in   Hiphil.      The   versions    fluctuate. 
Arab,  (prim.)   "to  shine  like  the  rising  sun."    (sec.)  1.  (in 
different  conjugations)  "To  shine  in  general,  to  be  clear,  or 
serene,  or  manifest,  to  render  clear  or  serene."     2.  "  To 
laugh,  to  be  glad,  to  remove  or  allay  sorrow."    Job  ix.  27. 
"1  will  forget  mj  complaint,  I  will  leave  off  my  heaviness,'^ 
nrSjtil.  70.    "  I  will  sio*/t."    Vulg.  "  I  am  wrung  with  sor- 
row,''^    Syr.  Arab.     "  I   am  pressed  ivith  straits.^^    Chald. 
"  I   will   be   confirmed.*^      Eng.   "  1   will  comfort  myself.^' 
Literally,  "  I  will  lay  aside  my  sorrowful  face,  and  I  will 
(prim.)  make  it  to  shine  like  the  sun;^^    or,  (sec.)  "render  it 
serene.*^      Job  x.  20.  "  Let  me  alone,"  nj'S^xi.  70.  "  that  I 
may  take  rest.^*     ^"Ig.  "  bewail  my  sorrow.^^     Arab.  "  take 
breath.^^     Syr.   ''solace  myself,  and  restP     Chald.  "rest.' 
Eng.  "  take  comfort.^^    Rather,  "  make  (my  face)  to  shine.^^ 
Psal.  xxxix.  13.      "O  spare  me,"  nj'SriiO.      70.  and  Vulg. 
"  that  I  may  be  cooled  or  refreshed."     Syr.  Arab,  as  in  the 
former  text.     Chald.  "and  I  w'lil  depart.^^     Eng.  "that  I 
may  recover  strength.^*     Rather,  "  make  (my  face)  to  shine  /*' 
or  "  to  be  serene."      Jer.  viii.   18.  Eng.  "(When)  I  would 
comfort  myself  (titSdd)  against  sorrow,  my  heart  is  faint 
in  me."      70.  Arab.     "Incurable  with  the  sorrow  of  your 
fainting  heart."     Vulg.  "  My  sorrow  is  above  sorrow."  Syr. 
"I  am  worn  away  ^^      Chald.     "Because   tf  ey   mocked.*^ 
Rather,  "J/fl/drio' (desiring)   me  (sec.  I.)  to  render  my  face 
serene,^^  (i.  e.  0  thou,  who  desirest,  &c.)  "  above  my  sorrow, 
my  heart  becomes  faint  in  me;"  or  better  (sec.  2.)  "0  thou, 
who  laughest  at   my   sorrow."  Amos,  v.   9.  Vy*~h];  llif  rhjr2T\. 
70.   Arab.      "  Distributing^   bruising  upon   strength."  Aq. 


64  USES  OF  THE  KINDRED  LANGUAGES. 

Vulg.  ''Mocking  devastation  upon  the  strong."  Sjr.  "  Giving 
dominion."  Chald.  Eng.  "  That  strengtheneth  the  spoiled 
(Grot.  Drus.  Vat.  *  the  spoiler,' — Avrong)  against  the  strong." 
Rather  (prim.)  "  Who  viaketh  devastation  to  break  forth 
like  the  dawn  (i.  e.  suddenly)  upon  the  mighty ;"  a  beautiful 
figure,  and  used  Joel  ii.  "2,  Isa.  xlvii.  11. 
Schultens,  ib.  c.  1.    Vindicige  Orig.  §  2. 

211.  The  kindred  languages  afford  the  best  (and 
where  the  ancient  versions  vary  in  translating  them, 
the  only)  means  of  determining  with  certainty,  the 
signification  of  such  words  as  occur  but  once,  or  very 
seldom,  in  the  Bible. 

212.  The  kindred  languages  point  out  the  true 
meaning  of  some  words,  whether  primitives  or  deriva- 
tives, to  which  wrong  significations  have  been  affixed 
in  the  Bible. 

Isa.  xviii.  2.  "  Whose  lands  the  rivers  i>{?3  ;"  supposed  irreg- 
ular for  1TO,  (which  is  found  in  one  MS.)  Eng.  "  have  spoil- 
ed ;"  but  this  irregularity  unexampled.  (Schult.  Gram.  p. 
491.)  Arab.  NO,  "  to  lift  itself  up,  to  bring  under  it."  Hence 
"have  brought  under  them,"  or  "overflowed."  But  NT3 
Syr.  and  XT'3  Chald.  signifies  "a  teat;"  so  that  the  verb 
may  mean,  "  have  nourished ;"  very  applicable  to  the  Nile 
fertilizing  Egypt. 
Lowth's  Isaiah  in  loc. 

213.  The  kindred  languages  enable  us  to  discover 
all  the  senses  of  words,  some  of  whose  significations 
only  have  been  collected  from  the  Bible,  though  others 
of  them  would  better  suit  particular  passages  ;  and,  by 
this  means,  both  explain  these  passages,  and  illustrate 
the  connexion  between  roots  and  their  derivatives. 


USES  OF  THE  KINDRED  LANGUAGES.  65 

214.  In  particular,  these  languages  discover  the 
primary  signification  of  many  roots,  even  such  as  are 
most  commonly  used,  whose  secondary  senses  alone 
have  been  attended  to,  though  the  primary  sense  would 
throw  light  on  some  texts. 

^n:  very  common,  rendered  "  to  be  great."  But  Arab,  (prim.) 
"to  twist."  Hence  a^Vn:i  Deut.  xxii.  12.  "fringes." 
1  Kings  vii.  17.  "  chain-work,"  i.  e.  twisted  threads. 

(Sec.)  1.  "Sinewy,  brawny,  compact,  elegant,"  in  the  human 
make.  Exod.  xv.  16.  "By  the  greatness  (brawniness,  firm- 
ness) of  thine  arm,  they  shall  be  as  still  as  a  stone." 

2.  «  To  struggle,  wrestle,  fight."    Job  vii.  17.    "  What  is  man 
that  thou  shouldst  magnify  (struggle)  with  him?" — context. 
Schultens,  Defect,  ling.  Heb.  §  202,  &c. 

pny,  very  common,  "to  be  just;"  but  this  only  a  secondary 
sense.  Arab,  (prim.)  "  To  be  stiff,  inflexible ;"  also  "  to  be 
inflexibly  straight."  Hence  metaphorically,  "to  be  just, 
true."  Isa.xlix.  24.  "  Shall  p  I2f  ^3iy  (literally)  the  captives 
of  the  just  one  be  delivered?"  but  the  devil  is  here  meant. 
Eng.  "  the  lauyful  captive  ;**  but  this  would  be  unjust.  "  The 
captives  of  the  itijfexihle,  rigid,  or  inexorable  one." 
Schultens,  ib.  §  217,  &c. 

Eccles.  vii.  16.  "Be  not  righteous  overmuch." — objectionable. 
"  Be  not  too  rigid  or  inflexible." 

Schultens,  ib.     Hammond,  Grotius,  Patrick,  and  others,  in 
loco. 

215.  The  kindred  languages  are  the  only,  or  the 
most  successful,  means  of  leading  us  to  understand 
the  meaning  of  phrases,  or  idiomatical  combinations 
of  words,  which  are  found  in  the  Bible,  and  the  pre- 
cise meaning  of  which  cannot  be  determined  by  it ; 
but  which,  being  agreeable  to  the  genius  of  the  orig- 
inal languages,  are  preserved  in  books  written  m 
them. 

9 


Q6  USES  OF  THE  KINDRED  LANGUAGES. 

Dan.  xii.  7.  "  And  when  he  shall  have  accomplished  T  2f33 
(literally)  "  to  shake  the  hand,^^  Eng.  "  to  scatter  the  power 
of  the  holy  people,  all  these  things  shall  be  finished."  But 
it  is  a  common  phrase  in  Arabic,  signifying  "  to  leave  off 
friendship,  society,  or  intercourse  with  a  person."  The 
meaning  therefore  is,  "  When  he  shall  have  put  an  end  to  his 
leaving  off  friendship  with  the  holy  people,  (i.  e.  the  rejection 
of  the  Jews,  who  were  his  peculiar  people,)  all  these  things 
shall  be  finished."  A  prediction  of  the  future  restoration  of 
the  Jews  from  their  present  state  of  rejection. 
S-hultens,  Orig,  Heb.  T.  1.  c.  4. 


VERSIONS.  67 


CHAP.  IV, 


• 


Versions  of  the  Scriptures, 

216.  Versions  of  the  Scriptures  into  other  lan- 
guages, are  subservient  to  criticism,  either  by  suggest- 
ing the  readings  which  the  translators  followed,  or  by 
giving  us,  in  a  tongue  more  intelligible  to  us,  the  sense 
of  the  original. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  2.  c.  1.     Walton,  Prol.  5.  §  3. 

217.  Versions  are,  either  such  as  are  confined  to 
the  Old  Testament,  such  as  extend  to  the  whole 
Scripture,  or  such  as  are  appropriated  to  a  particular 
book. 

218.  The  versions  of  the  first  kind  are,  the  Chal- 
dee  paraphrases,  the  Greek  versions,  the  Samaritan 
versions  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  modern  Jewish  ver- 
sions. 

Simon)  ib.c.  1. 


6S  CHALDEE  PARAPHRASES. 


SECT.  I. 

Of  the  Chaldee  Paraphrases. 

219.  The  Targums,*or  Chaldee  paraphrases,  took 
their  rise  from  the  custom  which  was  introduced  after 
the  captivity,  when  the  Jews  had  forgotten  the  Hebrew 
language,  of  subjoining,  to  the  portions  of  scripture 
read  hi  their  synagogues,  an  explication  in  Chaldaic, 
which  had  then  become  their  vernacular  tongue. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  1,  17.     Walton,  Prol.  12.  §  5.     Bret.  Diss. 

220.  For  a  considerable  time,  these  explications 
were  not  probably  committed  to  writing;  then  they 
began  to  write  the  ordinary  glosses  on  more  difficult 
texts ;  and  afterwards,  by  collecting  these,  and  filling 
them  up,  they  completed  targums  on  whole  books ; 
but  at  what  time  is  uncertain. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  1,  18.     Walton,  ib.  §  7.     Bret.  ib. 

221.  The  Jews  had  many  of  these,  all  probably 
collected  from  scattered  or  traditional  glosses  of  their 
doctors ;    but  with  very  different  degrees  of  judgment. 

Wahon,  Prol.  12.  §  8,  &c.     Bret.  ib. 

222.  There  are  three  Chaldee  paraphrases  on  the 
Pentateuch ;  the  first  ascribed  to  Onkelos,  the  most 
ancient,  and  a  very  literal  and  exact  version  ;  the  sec- 
ond to  Jonathan,  more  modern  and  inexact ;  the  third 
called   the   Jerusalem   targum,  modern,  and  of  little 

value.  i 

Simon,  ib.  c.  18.     AValton,  Prol.  5.  §  4.  Prol.  12.  §  8,  9,  U,  13, 
14.     Brett,  ib. 


CHALDEE  PARAPHRASES.  69 

223  On  the  prophets,  both  prior  and  posterior,  there 
is  a  Chaldee  paraphrase  ascribed  to  Jonathan  ;  ancient, 
but  not  very  literal,  containing  many  fables,  and  suiting 
its  explications  to  the  prejudices  of  the  Jews. 

.Simon,  ib.  c.  18.      Walton,  Prol.   5.   ib.   Prol.  12.  §  8,  10. 
Brett,  ib. 

224.  There  are,  likewise,  Chaldee  paraphrases  on  all 
the  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  authors  of 
which  are  unknown,  but  which  appear  to  be  modern 
and  inaccurate  ;  and,  besides  all  these,  the  Rabbins 
refer  to  other  targums,  which  have  never  been  made 
public. 

Simon,  ib.     Walton,  ib.     Prol.  12.  §  12,  1 5.     Brett,  ib. 

225.  The  Chaldee  paraphrases  are  written,  some- 
times alternately  with  the  Hebrew,  verse  by  verse ; 
sometimes  in  parallel  columns  ;  and  sometimes  in  sepa- 
rate books. 

Walton,  Prol.  12.  §  6.     Brett,  ib. 

226.  While  some  have  condemned  the  publication 
of  these  paraphrases,  as  giving  countenance  to  Jewish 
fables  and  superstitions ;  and  others  have  extolled  it  as 
sufficient  for  the  confutation  of  the  Jews  from  their 
own  confessions  ;  both  have  carried  the  matter  too  far. 
But,  though  the  Jews  may  elude  arguments  deduced 
from  them,  as  not  absolutely  irrefragable  ;  yet,  on  the 
other  hand,  such  arguments  are  not  wholly  destitute  of 
force  against  them. 

Simon,  ib.     Walton,  Prol.  1^2.  §  1!,  16,  18. 


70  CHALDEE  PARAPHRASES. 

227.  The  printed  Chaldee  paraphrases  agree,  in  most 
instances,  with  the  present  Hebrew  text,  which  there- 
fore, many  conclude,  remains  now  precisely  as  it  was 
when  these  paraphrases  were  written.  But  this  con- 
clusion falls  to  the  ground,  when  it  is  considered,  that 
the  MSS.  of  the  Chaldee  paraphrases  differ  much  from 
one  another,  and  from  the  printed  copies  ;  that  these 
have  been  often  altered,  in  conformity  to  the  Hebrew; 
and  that  the  MSS.  are  very  incorrect,  and  thus  demon- 
strate the  carelessness  of  Jewish  transcribers. 

Polyglot,  Lond.  V.  6.      Simon,  ib.  c.  18.    Ken.  Diss.  2.  c.  2. 
Walton,  Prol.  12.  §  17. 

228.  The  Chaldee  paraphrases,  therefore,  especially 
the  MSS.  of  them,  still  suggest  several  various  read- 
ings, and  may  assist  in  recovering  some  true  readings ; 
for  which  purpose,  that  of  Onkelos,  by  being  most 
literal  and  accurate,  is  most  useful ;  the  others,  only 
when  it  appears  that  they  designed  to  render  the  very 
words. 

Ken.  ib.      Houbig.  Prol.   p.   146.      Lowth's   Isaiah,   Prelim. 
Dissert,  p.  68. 

229.  The  Chaldee  paraphrases,  being  written  in 
the  same  character  with  the  Hebrew  text,  will  often 
shew  the  occasions  of  false  readings  in  the  latter,  and 
the  kinds  of  mistakes  to  which  transcribers  were  most 
liable. 
Ken.  ib. 

230.  These  paraphrases  contributed  very  much,  in 
in  an  indirect  manner,  to  the  interpretation  of  Scripture; 
for  they  were  the  principal  means  by  which  the  Rab- 


GREEK  VERSIONS. 


17 


bins  and  later  Christians  recovered  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, without  the  knowledge  of  which,  the  original 
could  not  have  been  at  all  understood. 
Simon,  ib.  c.   18. 

231.  They  contribute  likewise  to  the  interpretation 
of  Scripture  very  considerably,  in  a  direct  manner; 
as,  many  of  the  glosses  of  the  Rabbins,  contained  in 
them,  are  just  explications,  and  elucidate  its  real  mean- 
ing in  obscure  passages. 

Walton,  Prol.  12.  §  19. 

SECT.  II. 

Of  the  Greek  Versions, 

232.  The  most  ancient  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, seems  to  be  the  Greek,  commonly  called  the 
Septuagint ;  for  the  books  which  mention  others  prior 
to  it,  are  of  no  authority 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  2.  c.  2.  Vr  alton,  Prol.  5.  §  4.  Prol.  9.  §  6. 
Brett,  ib. 

233.  It  received  its  name,  either  from  its  being  ap- 
proved by  the  Sanhedrim,  which  consisted  of  70,  or 
rather  72  members ;  or,  from  the  Jewish  account  of 
that  number  of  persons  having  been  set  to  translate  it 
separately,  and  miraculously  coinciding  in  every  word  ; 
which  is  undoubtedly  a  fable. 

Simon,  ib.  Walton,  Prol.  9.  §  2,  S,  4,  5,  7,  8,  9,  10.  Is. 
Vossius  lie  70  Int.  Jos.  Scaliger.  Ilodius  de  Vers.  Greec. 
auct#  Bos.  Prol.  c.  1.  Usser.de  70  fnterpret.  Brett,  ib, 
Beaiisobre,  Introd. 


72  GREEK  VERSIONS. 

234  From  differences  in  style,  in  the  degrees  of 
accuracy,  and  in  the  manner  of  translating  the  same 
Hebrew  words,  or  expressing  proper  names,  it  appears 
evident,  that  the  different  parts  of  this  version  were 
made  by  different  authors,  and  at  different  times. 

Simon,  ib.  Ken.  Diss.  1.  p  197.  Diss.  2.  p.  321.  Diss.  Gen.  § 
17.  Walton,  Prol.  9,  §  11,12.  Bos.  Prol.  c.  1.  Hod.  ib. 
Beausobre,  ib. 

235.  It  is  agreed,  that  the  Pentateuch  was  trans- 
lated into  Greek  about  280  years  before  Christ,  for 
the  use  of  the  Hellenistical  Jews  ;  and  the  version  is 
very  literal  and  exact.  The  other  books  began  to  be 
translated  about  170  years  before  Christ,  when  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes  prohibited  their  reading  the  law  in 
their  synagogues,  and  were  finished  before  the  year 
130,  all  very  literally,  but  with  various  degrees  of  skill 
and  accuracy. 

Simon,  ib.  Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  211,  319.  Diss.  Gen.  ib.  Bos. 
Prol.  c.  1. 

236.  The  Greek  version  was  held  in  equal  vene- 
ration with  the  Hebrew  original,  and  regarded  as  alike 
inspired,  by  the  Hellenistical  Jews,  till  the  early  Chris- 
tians came  to  use  it  in  their  arguments  against  them  ; 
and  then,  they  began  to  depreciate  it,  and  to  appeal 
to  the  original,  or  to  make  alterations  in  it. 

Simon,  ib.  and  1.  i.  c.  17.  Ken.  Diss,  Gen.  §  67,  68,  70,  79,  86. 
Walton,  Prol.  9.  §  1,  15.  Bos.  Prol.  c.  1.  Brett,  ib.  Isa. 
xlii,  1.  liii.  9. 

237.  In  order  further  to  discredit  it,  they  Procured 
new  Greek  versions  from  the  Hebrew ;  that  oiAquila, 


GREEK  VERSIONS.  73 

about  the  year  of  Christ  130,  extremely  literal;  that 
of  Theodotion,  about  175,  much  less  literal;  and  that 
of  Symmachus,  about  200,  likewise  not  literal ;  of  all 
which  only  some  fragments  remain,  which  have  been 
collected  by  Montfaucon. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  9.     Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  392,  &c.  366.  Diss.  Gen.  §  68 

—  70      Owen's  Inquiry.     W  alton,  Prol.  9.  §  19.  Brett,  ib. 
Isa.  vii.  14.  7rxp6  v(^,  70.  vtccvig,  Aq. 

238.  Origen's  Hexapla  was  an  edition  of  these  four 
versions,  along  with  the  original,  both  in  Hebrew  and 
in  Greek  characters,  written  in  parallel  columns,  with 
marks  for  pointing  out  the  variations  of  the  70  from 
the  Hebrew,  which  version  he  sometimes  likewise  al- 
tered in  conformity  to  the  Hebrew,  and  with  marginal 
notations  of  the  differences  between  the  versions ;  a 
work  evidently  useful  when  it  was  written,  and  which 
would  have  been  now  of  very  great  use,  if  it  had  re- 
mained entire  and  uncorrupted  ;  but  it  was  soon  in  a 
great  measure  lost ;  and,  by  the  frequency  of  transcrib- 
ing the  70  version  from  it,  and  the  carelessness  of 
transcribers  in  omitting  the  marks  of  distinction,  and 
taking  marginal  interpretations  into  the  text,  that  ver- 
sion came  in  time  to  be  much  vitiated  and  mixed  with 
other  versions. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  3,  7.  Ken.  diss.  1.  p.  127.  Diss.  2.  p.  362,  &c. 
377,  &c.  384,  397.  Walton,  Prol.  9.  §  20—27.  Bos.  Prol.  c. 
2.     Brett,  ib. 

Hence  double  renderings  of  one  Hebrew  word.     Gen.  ix.  20. 

uv6pu'7r(^  (yee>>p'_  (^)  yrq.  2.  Sam.  i.  23.  a  hxx.eX6>pi<riu.svoi, 
and  a  diex,^piT6yiTotv.  1  Chron.  xi.  11.  ^^r^l,  and  ev  Kocti>u  evi. 
Psal.  xxii.  1.  0  ^£(^  jttjj,  and  ^foT^si  /^ot*  xxix.  1.  ut9t  $-stf, 
and  iim  Kpmt, 

10 


74  GREEK    VERSIONS. 

239.  In  consequence  of  Origen's  work,  the  old  cop- 
ies of  the  70  version  were  disregarded,  and  gradually 
lost ;  but,  as  many  were  dissatisfied  with  the  altera- 
tions which  he  had  made,  other  editions  were  written 
by  Christians,  among  which  Lucian's  was  most  con- 
formable to  the  old  copies. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  10.  Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  393.  Walton,  ib. 
Brett,  ib. 

240.  There  are  several  MSS.  extant  of  the  70  ver- 
sion, or  of  parts  of  it ;  the  most  celebrated  of  which 
are,  the  Alexandrian,  in  the  British  Museum,  and  the 
Vatican,  at  Rome. 

Simon,  ib.  Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  406.  Diss.  Gen.  §  173—175. 
Walton,  Prol.  9.  §  30,  34.  Bos.  Prol.  c.  2.  Grabe,  Preefat. 
Brett,  ib. 

241.  There  are  four  independent  editions  of  this 
version ;  the  Complutensian,  in  which  variations  were 
made  from  the  MSS.  in  conformity  to  the  Hebrew  ; — 
the  Aldiiie,  followed  with  some  alterations  in  several 
subsequent  impressions  ; — the  Vatican,  from  which  all 
the  ordinary  editions  are  taken; — and  Grabe's,  pub- 
lished chiefly,  though  not  entirely,  from  the  Alexan- 
drian MS. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  3.  Catalog,  edition.  Walton,  ib.  §  28 — 30.  Bos. 
Prol.  c.  2.  Fabric.  Bibliotb.  Grfec.  I.  3.  c.  2.  Morin. 
Exercitat.  et  Prgefat.     Grabe,  Prsefat.     Brett,  ib. 

242.  These  editions  differ  considerably  from  one 
another :  some  give  the  preference  to  one,  and  others 
to  another  ;  but  none  of  them  is  perfect.  By  a  care- 
ful collation  of  them  all  with  the  MSS.  extant,  a  more 
correct  edition  might  be  made  out,  and  would  be  of 


GREEK    VERSIONS.  75 

considerable  use,  for  throwing  light  upon  the  Scrip- 
tures. 

Walton,  Prol.  9.  §  28—51.     Brett,  ib. 

243.  While  the  Hellenistical  Jews,  and  many  of 
the  ancient  Christians,  improperly  reckoned  the  Greek 
version  inspired,  some  moderns  have  extolled  it  beyond 
measure,    and  others,  as  unduly  depreciated  it ;    the 
truth  lies  between   the  two  extremes.     It  is  the  work 
of  fallible  men,  who  fell  into  many  mistakes ;    and 
therefore,  has  no  authority,  except  so  far  as  it  is  con- 
formable to  the  original  Hebrew ;    but,  having  been 
translated  from  very  ancient  copies,  it  shews  in  what 
manner  they  read  the  text ;    and  therefore,  may  serve 
for  detecting  corruptions,  which  have  since  crept  into 
the  Hebrew  copies,  and  for  pointing  out  the  genuine 
reading ;  and  accordingly,  many  of  the  readings  which 
it  points  out,  are  still  found  in  the  oldest  and  best  MSS. 
and  ought  to  be  adopted. 

Morin.  ib.  Is.  Voss.  ib.  Simon,  ib.  c.  2,  5.  L.  CapelL  Epist. 
ad  Usser.  Houbig.  Prol.  p.  143.  Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  5S6, 
&c.  Walton,  Prol.  9.  §  8,  14,  15,  52—66.  Bos.  Prol.  c.  1. 
Brett,  ib. 

Gen.  xxxi.  55.  "  The  God  of  Abraham,  and  the  God  of  Nahor 
judge  betwixt  us,  the  God  of  their  father.^'' — superfluous  and 
improper — wanting  in  70.  and  2  MSS. 

Houbig.  ih  loc.      Ken.  ib.  Diss.  1.  p,  368.    Diss.  Gen. 
cod.  80,  227. 

Neh.  ix.  17.  "  And  appointed  a  captain  to  return  in  their  re- 
hellion,  (onDD,  which  has  not  this  signification)  to  their 
bondage."  70.  f v  AiyvTrra^  "  to  their  bondage  in  Egijpt.** 
any::^,  3  or  4  MSS.  Edit.  Neap.  1487.  Agreeable  to 
Num.  xiv.  4. 
Ken.  in  loc.  Diss.  Gen.  §  49. 


76  GREEK    VERSIONS. 

Zecn.  V.  6.  **  This  is  (ZDyy)  their  eye,  (Eng,  '  tlieir  resem- 
blance')  through  all    the  earth."    lD^)]?    "their  iniquity." 
70.  uS'iKia.     So  Syr.  1  MS. 
Bos.  ib.     Ken.  in  loc. 

244.  The  readings  pointed  out  bj  the  Greek  ver- 
sion, are  sometimes  the  genuine,  even  when  they  are 
not  found  in  any  Hebrew  MSS.  now  extant. 

Bos.  Prol.  c.  1.     Brett,  ib. 

Gen.  xxiii.  13.  '2V^\i/  )h  nnx  CDX.  Lit.  "If  thou,  I  pray  thee 
hear  me." — obscure,  elliptical.  ^^7,  "to  me."  70.  sTreiSecv 
TT^oi  ef^H  ei,  (as  Gen.  xxix.  34.  ^  Kings,  x.  6.)  "since  thou 
art  friendly  to  me,  hear  me."  So  Sam.  Corrected  in  1 
MS. 

Bos.  ib.     Ken.  in  loc. 

Gen.  iv.  8.  (N°  81.) 

Deut.  xxxiii.     In  the  Hebrew  there  is  no  mention  of  Simeon. 
But  V.  6,  Evf^em  £^M  7ro?^v^.     70.  Alex.  Aid.  Complut. 
Bos.  ib.  et  in  loc. 

245.  When  the  Greek  version  and  the  Hebrew  text 
agree  in  readings  that  are  false,  it  proceeds,  sometimes, 
from  these  having  crept  into  the  Hebrew  copies  before 
that  version  was  made,  and  sometimes,  from  its  having 
been  since  altered  in  conformity  to  them. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  17,  18.    Diss.  2.  p.  194,  &c. 
Deut.  X.  6.  (N°  64.) 

246.  The  Greek  version  was  one  of  the  principal 
means  of  recovering  the  Hebrew  language  ;  and  a  closer 
attention  to  it  would  have  rendered  the  knowledge  of 
that  language,  in  many  instances,  more  perfect. 

Simon,  i(j.  c.  5,  8.     Capel.  Epist.  adUsser.    Houb.  Prol.  p.  143. 

247.  The  authors  of  that  version  used,  or  were 
acquainted    with,    languages  very   analogous   to   the 


GREEK  VERSIONS.  77 

Hebrew  ;  and  therefore,  knew  significations  of  words, 
which  have  since  been  unknown  or  overlooked,  and 
have  given  them  in  some  passages  where  they  were 
proper. 

Simon,  ib.  c,  5.     Walton,  Pro!.  9.  §  46.     Brett,  ib. 

248.  They  mistranslated,  however,  some  words,  by 
giving  them  that  signification  to  which  they  had  come 
by  use  to  be  restricted,  in  that  dialect  to  which  they 
were  accustomed,  though  they  were  capable  of  another 
more  suitable  to  the  passage. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  5,     Walton,  prol.  9.  §  46.     Bos.  Prol.  c.  1. 
Gen.  i.  6.  y'p"),  70.  ^vioeafAx  *'  firmament,"  from  the  Syriac  use, 
"  firm,  solid."  So  Vulg.  Eng.     Rather,  "  expanse." 

249.  The  authors  of  this  version  often  render  He- 
brew words  in  a  sense  different  from  that  to  which  they 
are  restricted  by  the  present  vowel  points  ;  and  often 
in  a  better  sense. 

Simon,  ih.  c.  5,  8.     Bos.   Prol.  c.  1.     Brett,  ib.  (No  111.) 
Gen.    xlvii.  31.   "  Israel  bowed   himself  upon  the  hed?s  (ntjn) 
head."     70.  p«.QSii  "  staff,"  HD^p. 

250.  The  Greek  version  often  gives  a  juster  sense 
of  texts  of  Scripture,  than  what,  being  given  by  more 
modern  versions,  is  generally  put  upon  them. 

Simon,  ib.     Walton,  Prol.  9.  §  46.    Bos.  Prol.  c.  1. 

Gen.  vi.  3.      "  My  Spirit  shall  not  always  strive  with  man." 

Eng. — remain^  70.  Vulg.  connexion,  "  for  that  he  is  flesh, 

yet  his  days  shall  be  120  years." 
Simon,  ib.  c.  5. 

251.  The  Greek  version,  being  written  in  the  very 
same  dialect  with  the  New  Testament,  often  serves, 


78  SAMARITAN    VERSIONS. 

both  to  determine  the  genuine  reading,  and  to  fix  the 
meaning  of  words  in  passages  of  it.     (No.  165.) 

Bos.  Prol.  c.  1.  Grotius  in  N.  T.     Kuclien.  Animad.  in  Evang. 

Macknight,  ib. 
Mark.  V.   38.  ««AaA<«$dvr«5.  all  MSS.  yet  suspected  to  be  for 

oAoAy^ovTaj,  but  frequent  in  70. 
Mill,  in  ioc. 
Luke  viii.  20.  K.cct   uTry^yyeXij  uvtm,  ?ieyovrav.      Some  MSS.  have 

et7ri)yye?^ei}  uvrm;    but  the  former  is  found   in  70.     (Mill.) 

Eng.  "  And  it  was  told  him  %  certain  which  said." 


SECT.  III. 

Of  the  Samaritan  Versions, 

252.  There  are  three  Versions  taken  notice  of, 
which  were  made  directly  from  the  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch. 

Ken.  Diss.  2.  c.  1.  p.  29,  &c.    Walton,  Prol.  11.  §  20. 

253.  One  of  them  is  in  the  Samaritan  character,  and 
in  their  common  language,  reckoned  very  ancient,  and 
made  on  account  of  their  having  lost  the  knowledge  of 
the  Hebrew. 

Simon,  V.  T.  I.  2.  c.  1,  17.     Walton,  Prol.  5.  §  4.  and  Prol.  11. 
§  20.    Brett,  ib.. 

254.  It  is  very  literal  and  exact,  but  incorrectly 
rendered  in  the  Latin  version  of  it  published  in  the 
Polyglot. 

Simon,  ib.  c,  17.    Walton,  Prol.  1 1.  ib. 


SAMARITAN  VERSIONS.  79 

255.  It  generally  agrees  with  the  Samaritan  text, 
where  this  differs  from  the  Hebrew  ;  and  thus  confirms 
the  antiquity  of  its  readings. 

Simon,  ib. 

256.  But,  it  differs  from  that  text  in  some  places, 
either  by  the  translator's  mistake  of  the  sense,  or  where 
a  corruption  has  crept  into  the  one  or  the  other ;  and, 
by  a  collation  of  the  MSS.  of  it,  it  might  be  rendered 
more  perfect. 

Simon,  ib. 

257.  There  is  likewise  a  version  from  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch,  into  the  Arabic  language,  some  copies  of 
w  hich  are  written  in  the  Arabic  character,  and  others 
in  the  Samaritan,  but  little  known. 

Simon,  ib.     Walton,  ib.  §  21. 

258.  There  was  a  Greek  version  from  the  same 
Pentateuch,  esteemed  very  ancient,  of  which  only  a  few 
fragments  remain,  in  quotations  of  the  Fathers ;  and, 
from  these  it  appears  to  have  been  literal  and  exact, 
and  to  have  concurred  with  the  70,  in  many  readings. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  9.  Ken.  ib.     Walton,  ib.  §  22. 

259.  The  other  versions  peculiar  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, are  the  modern  Jewish  versions  ;  the  principal 
of  which  are,  by  R.  Saadias  Gaon,  and  an  African 
Jew,  into  Arabic  ;  some,  into  modern  Greek ;  one,  into 
Spanish,  and  one,  into  Persic. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  19.    Walton,  Prol.  14.  §  15,  16. 


80  LATIN  VERSIONS. 


SECT.  IV. 

Of  the  Latin  Versions. 

260.  The  other  class  of  Versions,  is  of  such  as  ex- 
tend both  to  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  ;  at  least, 
being  made  by  Christians,  do  not  purposely  exclude 
either ;  and,  these  being  ancient,  or  modern,  we  shall 
begin  with  the  former,  and,  among  them,  with  the 
Latin  Versions. 

261 .  That  the  Scriptures  might  be  understood  by 
all  Christians,  there  were  very  early  versions  of  them, 
probably  many,  into  the  Latin  tongue  ;  those  of  the 
New  Testament,  immediately  from  the  Greek  original ; 
but,  those  of  the  old  Testament,  from  the  Version  of 
the  70. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  2  c.  11.  N.  T.  t.  2.  c.  3—6.  Ken.  Diss.  2.  p. 
434.  Michael.  §  61,  62.  Walton,  Prol.  5  §  5.  Prol.  10.  §  1. 
Brett,  ib.  Beausobre,  Intr.  Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  7.  sect. 
21,  22,  23,  24,  25. 

262.  There  was  one  Latin  Version,  of  highest  au- 
thority, and  most  generally  received,  called  the  Old, 
the  Italic,  or  the  Vulgate ;  written  probably  in  the  first 
century ;  a  considerable  part  of  which  remains,  and 
might  be  collected. 

Walton,  Prol.  9.  §  31,  32.  Prol.  10.  §  1.  Beausobre,  ib. 
Macknight,  ib.     Gen.  Pref.     Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  23. 

263.  This  Version,  being  extremely  literal,  is  well 
fitted  for  pointing  out  what  were  the  readings  in  the 


LATIN  VERSIONS.  81 

Greek  copies  ;  and,  by  reason  of  its  antiquity,  it  be- 
stows great  authority  on  such  readings  as  it  proves  to 
have  then  taken  place. 

264.  By  its  being  often  transcribed,  many  mistakes 
crept  into  the  Italic  version  ;  other  versions  were  mixt 
with  it ;  and,  in  particular,  expressions  were  interpolat- 
ed from  parallel  places,  and  glosses  taken  from  the 
margin  into  the  text ;  for  which  reason,  wherever  it 
contains  any  thing  additional  to  the  Greek,  it  is  justly 
suspicious. 

Simon,  ib.    Michael.  §  63,   64.      Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  8.    Brett, 
ib.    Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  26. 

265.  To  remedy  the  confusion  into  which  it  had 
gradually  fallen,  Jerome  corrected  it ;  but  afterwards 
made  a  new  version  of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  70 ; 
and,  not  satisfied  with  this,  he  made,  likewise,  a  version 
of  it,  from  the  Hebrew,  to  which,  however,  he  did  not 
always  scrupulously  adhere. 

Simon,  V.  T.  ib.  c.  11,  12.  Michael.  §  65,  Ken.  Diss.  Gen. 
§  8,  84,  1,  92.  Walton,  Prol.  5.  §  5.  Prol.  10.  §  1  -5.  Brett, 
ib.  Beaiisobre,  ib.  Macknight,  ib.  Marsh's  Michael,  ib, 
sect.  28. 

266.  This  last  version  shews  that  some  variations 
had  crept  into  the  Hebrew  copies,  since  the  time  when 
the  70  version  was  made. 

267.  Though  Jerome's  new  version  was  at  first  dis- 
approved by  some,  it  soon  came  (except  the  Psalms, 
his  former  version  of  which  was  still  retained)  to  be 
universally  adopted  and  used  ;  and  obtained  the  name 
of  the  Vulgate. 

11 


82  LATIN  VERSIONS. 

Simon,  V.  T.  ib.  c.  7,  1 1.  N.  T.  t.  2.  c.  8,  9.  Michael.  §  66. 
Walton,  Prol.  5.  §  5.  Prol.  10.  §  7,  8.  Brett,  ib.  Beau- 
sobre,  ib. 

268.  The  copies  of  the  Vulgate  version,  having  be- 
come very  different  from  one  another,  and  corrupted  in 
many  places,  were  several  times  revised  ;  and  several 
successive  editions  of  it,  corrected  from  MSS.,  have 
been  published. 

Simon,  N.  T.  ib.  Michael,  ib.  Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  12,  28,  92, 107. 
Walton,  Prol.  10.  §  9.     Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  ?9. 

269.  The  Vulgate,  in  its  present  state,  being  a 
mixture  of  the  old  Italic  version,  and  that  of  Jerome, 
points  out  the  state  of  the  original  text,  partly  in  the 
first,  and  partly  in  the  fourth  century ;  and  it  gives 
great  authority  to  those  readings  which  it  clearly  indi- 
cates ;  and  contains  several  which  are  preferable  to  the 
present  readings,  and  supported  by  some  of  the  best 
and  oldest  MSS. 

Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  27. 

Jer.  li.  19.    "  He  is  the  former  of  all  things,  and  the  rod  of  his 

inheritance."     Heb.  absurd.—"  And  Israel  is  the  rod,"  &c. 

Vulg.  Chald.  23  MSS.  Jer.  x.  16.  supplied  in  Eng. 
Ken.  in  loc.  Diss.  2.  p.  439.    Diss.  Gen.  §  47. 

270.  The  vulgate  is  not  inspired,  nor  infallible; 
but  it  is,  in  general,  skilful  and  faithful,  and  often 
gives  the  sense  of  Scripture  better  than  more  modern 
versions. 

Walton,  Prol.  10.  §  6,  10, 11.    Marsh's  Michael,  ib. 


SYRIAC  VERSIONS.  83 


SECT.  V. 

Of  the  Syriac  Versions. 

271.  There  is  a  Syriac  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, from  the  Greek  of  the  70,  part  of  which  only 
has  been  published  ;  which  is  ancient,  and  serves  prin- 
cipally to  shew  the  state  of  the  Greek  copy,  at  the 
time  when  it  was  made. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  2.  c.  15.  Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  88.  Walton,  Prol. 
13.  §8,17. 

272.  But  there  is,  likewise,  a  Syriac  version  of  the 
Old  Testament,  from  the  Hebrew,  as  well  as  of  the 
New  Testament,  from  the  Greek ;  probably  made  in 
the  first  century. 

Simon,  V.  T.  ib.  N.  T.  t.  2.  Pocock.  Not.  in  Port.  Mos.  c.  1, 
Michael.  §  47.  Walton,  Prol.  13.  §  8,  15.  Brett,  ib.  Mack- 
night,  ib.  Gen.  Pref.  Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  7.  sect.  4. 
6,  7,  8. 

273.  Many  MSS.  of  this  version  are  known  ;  there 
have  been  several  editions  of  it,  and  some  translations 
from  it. 

Simon,  ib.  Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  88,  89.  n.  b.  Walton,  Prol.  13. 
§  8.    Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  2,  3. 

274.  The  Syriac  version  omits  the  Hebrew  titles  of 
the  Psalms,  and  inserts  others  expressive  of  their  sup- 
posed subjects ;  and  it  contains  not  2  Peter,  2  and  S 
John,  nor  Jude. 


84  SYRIAC  VERSIONS. 

Simon,  V.  T.  ib.     Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  2. 

Psal.  1.  "Of  the  manner  of  living  according  to  tiie  nine  beati- 
tudes mentioned  by  Matthew." 

Psal.  ii.  "  Concerning  the  calling  of  the  nations,  and  the  suffer- 
ings of  Christ." 

Psal.  iii.  "  Concerning  future  happiness." 

275.  The  Syriac  version  being  very  literal,  ascer- 
tains clearly  the  readings  which  it  followed  ;  by  reason 
of  its  antiquity,  it  gives  great  authority  to  these  read- 
ings ;  and  it  has  preserved  some  which  appear  to  be 
genuine. 

Walton,  Prol.  13,  §  19.    Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  9. 

2  Sam.  XV.  7.  "  After  forty  years  Absalom  said."     From  what? 
— Syr.  "four."  supported  by   Vulg.  in   several  MSS.  and 
Sixtus's  edit,  of  Joseph.  Ant.  7.  9.     Grot,  in  loc. 
Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  357.     Diss.  Gen    §  31.  p.  46,  n. 

Prov.  xxvi.  4,  5.  "Answer  not  a  fool  according  to  his  folly, 
lest  thou  also  be  like  unto  him.  Answer  a  fool  according  to 
his  folly,  lest  he  be  wise  in  his  own  conceit."  Contradic- 
tory— no  reason — Syr.  "  »3ccording  to  thine  own  ivisdom,^^ 
So  C'hald.  inSlND  repeated  from  the  preceding  line. 
Ken.  ib.  p.  359. 

276.  The  Syriac  version  often  agrees  with  the  70, 
where  it  differs  from  the  present  Hebrew ;  not  by 
having  been  taken  from  it ;  but  because  the  MSS.  used 
for  both  these  versions  agreed  ;  and  their  concurrence 
gives  great  authority  to  a  reading  followed  by  them. 

Simon,  V.  T.  ib. 

277.  In  the  New  Testament,  the  Syriac  version 
often  agrees  with  the  old  Italic,  but  was  not  taken  from 
it,  for  they  differ  both  in  readings,  and  in  renderings. 

Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  5. 


SYRIAC  VERSIONS.  85 

278.  The  coincidence,  therefore,  of  the  Syrlac  and 
the  Italic  versions,  in  any  reading,  has  arisen  from  their 
having  been  made  from  MSS.  of  the  same  age ;  and 
their  great  antiquity  will  generally  entitle  that  reading 
to  the  preference. 

279.  Besides  these  ancient  versions,  there  are  oth- 
ers into  Syriac,  more  modern,  of  the  fifth  and  seventh 
centuries  ;  but  they  are  less  valuable  and  useful. 


SECT.  VI. 

Of  the  other  Ancient  Versions, 

280.  The  Egyptian  Christians,  called  Copts,  had 
an  ancient  version  of  the  Scriptures,  supposed  to  have 
been  made  about  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Nice,  into 
the  Coptic  language,  then  vernacular  to  them,  which 
was  a  mixture  of  the  old  Egyptian  language,  and  the 
Greek. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  2.  c.  16.^.  T.  t.  2.    Michael.  §  53. 
Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  13. 

281.  There  are  said  to  be  two  versions  in  this  lan- 
guage extant ;  one,  known  in  Europe,  in  which  the 
Old  Testament  is  thought  to  have  been  translated  im- 
mediately from  the  70,  and  of  which  the  New  Testa- 
ment has  been  published ;  the  other,  used  by  the 
Jacobite  and  Melchite  Christians;  but  which  of 
them  is  the  ancient  version  is  uncertain. 

Simon,  ib.    Michael,  ib. 


86  ANCIENT  VERSIONS. 

282.  The  Coptic  versions  are  of  some  use  in  criti- 
cism ;  and  are  considerable,  as  having  given  rise  to 
the  Arabic  versions,  when  this  language  came  into 
common  use  in  Egypt. 

Simon,  ib. 

283.  There  are  many  Arabic  versions  of  the  Scip- 
tures,  made  by  Christians ;  but  they  are  all  posterior 
to  the  time  of  Mahomet ;  and  were  probably  finished 
in  the  tenth,  or  the  eleventh  century. 

Simon,  V.T.  c.  16.  N.  T.  t.  2.  Michael.  §  53—55.  .  Ken. 
Diss.  2.  p.  453.  Diss.  Gen.  §  44.  Walton,  Prol.  14.  §  17—23. 
Beausobre,  ib.    Marsli's  Michael,  ib.  §  15,  16. 

284.  They  are  unequal,  inaccurate,  and  often 
paraphrastical. 

Simon,  ib. 

285.  It  is  generally  supposed,  that  the  Arabic  ver- 
sions were  taken,  in  the  Old  Testament,  from  the 
Greek  of  the  70,  or  from  the  Syriac  translations  of  it ; 
and,  so  far  as  they  were  so,  they  show  the  readings  of 
these  at  the  time  when  they  w^ere  taken  ;  and  either 
confirm  their  present  readings^  or  preserve  such  as 
have  since  been  altered  in  these. 

Simon,  ib.    Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  44. 

Psal.  xviii.   1 3.    Arab,  wants  "  hailstones  and  coals  of  fire.'^ 
So  4  Heb.  MSS.  2  Sam.  xxii.  14.  70. 
Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  ib. 
Psal.  Ixviii.  18.    «  Thou  hast  ^ivew  gifts  to  men."    Arab,  old 
MSS.  of  70.    Syr.  Ital.  Eph.  iv.  8. 
Ken.  ib.  §  44,  77. 

286.  Some  of  the  Arabic  versions,  or  some  parts  of 
them,  appear  not  to  have  been  taken  from  these  other 


ANCIENT  VERSIONS.  87 

versions,  but  immediately  from  the  Hebrew  ;  for  they 
contain  readings  different  from  theirs,  but  conformable 
to  Hebrew  copies. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  44. 

1  Kings  xiii.  20.    "  As  they  sat  at  the  table— (piska) — the 

word  of  the  Lord   came  unto  the  prophet."    Arab,  alone 

supplies,  "  and  did  eat." 
Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  477. 
Chap.  xxii.  19- — "Hear  thou  the  word  of  the  Lord."    Heb. 

70.    Syr.    "  Hear    ^/e"    (Jehoshaphat    and    Ahab.)     Arab. 

7  Heb.  MSS. 
Ezek.   xxxvii.  4.     "  Again   he  said  unto  me."    Arab,  adds, 

"  Son  of  Man."     So  6  MSS.  Chald.  v.  3,  9,  11,  &c. 

287.  The  Arabic  versions  of  the  New  Testament 
are  thought  to  be  made,  from  the  Greek,  in  the  Gos- 
pels ;  and  from  the  Syriac,  in  the  Epistles. 

288.  Of  the  Arabic  versions,  there  are  many  MSS. 
differing  much  from  one  another ;  and  different  edi- 
tions;  but  some  of  them  altered  according  to  the 
Vulgate. 

Walton,  Prol.  14.  §  18—23. 

289.  There  was  an  early  version  of  the  Scriptures 
into  the  Ethiopic,  or  the  language  of  the  Abyssinians ; 
and,  as  one  only  is  known,  this  is  probably  the  same 
which  has  been  oftener  than  once  published,  and 
which  agrees  much  with  the  Alexandrian  MS. 

Chrysost.   Walton,   Prol.  15.   §  10,   12.     Beausobre,  Introd. 
Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  17. 

290.  The  Ethiopic  version  of  the  Old  Testament 
was  not  taken  from  the  Hebrew,  but  closely  follows 


88  ANCIENT  VERSIONS. 

the  70;    that  of  the  New  is  immediately  from  the 
Greek ;  and  better  in  the  Gospels,  than  in  the  Epistles. 
Simon,  V.  T.  1.  2.  c.  16.  N.  T.  t.  2.     Houbig.  Prol.  Michael. 
§  56.     Walton,  ib.  §  10,  11. 

291.  This  version  has  some  peculiar  readings ;  many 
of  them  erroneous  ;  but,  where  it  appears  to  be  exact, 
its  antiquity  gives  it  considerable  authority. 

Walton,  ib.  §  12. 

292.  The  Armenians  are  said  to  have  made  a  ver- 
sion of  the  Scriptures,  into  their  own  language,  in  the 
fourth  century,  immediately  from  the  Syriac ;  but 
they  afterwards  translated  the  New  Testament  from 
the  original  Greek. 

Simon,  V.  T.  ib.   N.  T.  ib.  Michael.  §  57.     Beausobre,  ib. 
Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  18,  19. 

293.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  the  ancient  Arme- 
nian version  was  altered  in  some  places,  according  to 
the  Vulgate ;  with  these  alterations  the  subsequent 
MSS.  were  written  ;  and,  when  it  was  published,  some 
other  alterations,  conformable  to  the  Vulgate,  were 
adopted  ;    but  it  still  retains  some  of  its  old  readings. 

Simon,  ib.  Michael.  §  58.  Beausobre,  ib. 
Matt.  XX vii.  16,  17.   "  Jesus  Barabbas."    singular;    but  men- 
tioned as  a  common  reading  by  Origen,  Hom.  35.  on  Matt. 

294.  If  the  Persians  had  anciently  a  version  of  the 
Scriptures  into  their  language,  it  is  probably  lost; 
for  all  the  Persic  versions  known  to  us,  are  reckoned 
modern. 

Simon,  V.  T.  c.  16.  N.  T.  t.  2.  c.  17.    Michael.  §  59.   Walton, 
Prol.  16.  §  6.     Beausobre,  ib. 


MODERN  VERSIONS.  89 

295.  Two  Persic  versions  have  been  published, 
both  of  which  appear  to  have  been  taken  from  the 
Syriac. 

Jid.  ib.    Walton,  ib.  §  T,  8,  9.    Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  20. 

296.  It  is  said,  however,  that  there  are  several  MSS. 
of  the  Persic  version,  considerably  different  from  both 
these  editions ;  and  that  another  version,  perhaps 
more  ancient  than  either,  is  used  by  the  Persians  in 
their  public  service. 


SECT.  VII. 

Of  Modem  Versions. 

296.  The  several  nations  in  the  Western  Church 
had  versions  of  the  Scriptures  into  their  vernacular 
languages,  which  were  taken  immediately  from  the 
Vulgate  ;  but  most  of  them  are  now  lost. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  2.  c.  1.  22.    Johnson,  Histor.  Account. 

297.  There  are,  however,  several  Anglo-Saxon  ver- 
sions of  the  Bible,  or  of  parts  of  it,  in  MSS.,  and  of 
which  the  Gospels  have  been  published ;  and  appear 
to  be  taken  from  the  old  Italic. 

Michael.  §  72.    Johnson,  ib.     Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  38. 

298.  The  version  of  the  four  Gospels,  called  Codex 
Argenteus,  was  generally  supposed  to  be  a  part  of  the 
Gothic  version  of  Ulphilas ;  but  is  affirmed  by  those 
who  have  examined  it  most  carefully,  to  be  an  old 
Frankis^  version,  made,  after  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century,  immediately  ifrom   the   Greek,   scrupulously 

12 


90  MODERN  VERSIONS. 

literal,  and  therefore  fit  for  shewing  the  readings  of  the 
copies  used  for  it. 

Michael.  §  68,  &c.     Beausobre,  Intr.    Marsh's  Michael,  ib. 
sect.  31,  &c. 

299.  The  more  modern  versions  are,  either  into 
Latin,  or  into  the  vernacular  languages  ;  and  both  are 
made  either  by  Papists  or  by  Protestants. 

Simon,  V.  T.  c.  1,  20. 

800.  Most  of  the  Latin  versions  by  Papists,  are 
made  according  to  the  present  Masoretic  text,  the 
modern  punctuation,  and  the  interpretations  of  the 
Rabbins  ;  aim  at  being  extremely  literal ;  and,  by  this 
means,  are  rude,  barbarous,  and  often  obscure ;  as 
those  of  the  Old  Testament  by  Pagninus,  Arias  Mon- 
tanus,  Malvenda,  Cajetan. 

Simon,  ib.    Brett,  ib.    Beausobre,  ib. 

301.  Others  of  them  are  only  editions  of  the  Vul- 
gate, with  some  corrections,  as  Clarius's,  &c. 

302.  Houbigant  has  given  a  new  version  of  the  Old 
Testament,  not  according  to  the  present  Hebrew,  but 
according  to  the  text,  as  he  thought  it  should  be  cor- 
rected by  MSS.,  ancient  versions,  and  critical  con- 
jectures. 

303.  Among  Protestants,  Munster  gave  a  Latin 
version  of  the  Old  Testament,  from  the  Hebrew, 
according  to  the  punctuation  and  interpretation  of  the 
Rabbins. 

304.  Leo  Juda  began  another,  which  was  finished 
by  Bibliander,  likewise  from  the  Hebrew  ;  rather  free 


xMODEUN  VERSIONS.  91 

than  literal ;    and  the  New  Testament  was  added  by 
others. 

Simon,  V.  T.  ib.    Brett,  ib.     Beausobre,  ib. 

305.  Castalio  gave  a  version  of  the  Bible,  from  the 
originals,  without  adhering  scrupulously  to  the  receiv- 
ed reading,  in  which  he  studied,  chiefly,  to  express  the 
sense  in  elegant  and  classical  Latin. 

806.  Junius  and  Tremellius  gave  a  version  of  the 
Old  Testament,  exactly  according  to  the  received  text, 
and  punctuation,  and  were  peculiar  in  expressing  the 
article  by  demonstrative  pronouns. 

307.  There  are  several  versions,  likewise,  of,  the 
New  Testament,  from  Greek  into  Latin,  by  Protes- 
tants ;  as  Beza's,  which  has  the  peculiarity  of  render- 
ing the  article  by  demonstrative  pronouns,  but  is  gen- 
erally and  highly  esteemed. 

Walton,  Prol.  4.    Beausobre,  ib.    Macknight,  ib. 

308.  Some  Protestants  have  satisfied  themselves 
with  only  correcting  the  Vulgate  version,  according  to 
the  originals  ;  as  the  Osianders. 

Brett,  ib. 

309.  In  consequence  of  the  Reformation  from 
Popery,  the  original  Scriptures  were  translated  into 
most  of  the  modern  languages  of  Europe ;  first,  by 
Luther,  into  German,  whose  version,  though  not 
scrupulously  literal,  is  sufficiently  accurate;  was, 
oftener  than  once,  revised  and  corrected  by  himself,  as 
well  as  by  others  since  ;  and  has  been  translated  into 
the  Swedish,  Danish,  and  other  northern  languages ; 


92  MODERN  VERSIOJN'S. 

next,  by  Leo  Juda ;    likewise  into  German,  for  the 
use  of  the  Zuinglians. 
Simon,  V.  T.  1.  g.  c.  1,  23, 

310.  The  Scriptures  were  translated  into  French, 
at  Geneva,  by  Olivetanus  ;  the  preferable  renderings  in 
the  text,  and  others,  particularly  from  the  70,  in  the 
margin.  This  version  was  corrected,  chiefly  as  to  the 
language,  by  Calvin ;  and,  again,  by  Bertram,  Beza, 
and  others  ;  and  has,  since,  from  time  to  time,  under- 
gone some  alterations  of  the  same  sort. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  1,  24. 

311.  By  order  of  the  Synod  of  Dordt,  a  version 
was  *made  into  the  Dutch  language,  in  place  of 
Luther's,  which  had  been  used  till  then  ;  and  well 
executed  by  the  learned  men  who  undertook  it. 

Simon,  ib,  c.  23. 

312.  There  are  two  versions  of  the  Old  Testament 
into  Spanish,  in  which  Pagnin  is  chiefly  followed. 

Simon,  ib. 

313.  Diodati  made  a  version  into  Italian,  (after- 
wards translated  into  French)  which  follows  the  70,  in 
many  places  where  he  thought  the  Hebrew  corrupted  ; 
and  is  free,  perspicuous,  and  highly  esteemed. 

Simon,  ib. 

314.  There  have  been  several  English  versions  of 
the  Scriptures;  Wickliff 's ;  TyndaPs;  Coverdale's  ; 
the  Bishops'  Bible ;  the  Geneva  Bible ;  our  present 
version,  the  alterations  of  the  later  of  which,  from  the 
earlier,  have  not  always  been  for  the  better ;    all  of 


DISTINCTIONS  OF  VERSIONS.  95 

them,  except  the  first,  taken  from  the  originals  ;  none 
of  them,  however,  particularly  not  our  present  version, 
adhering  servilely  to  the  common  Masoretic  reading  of 
the  Old  Testament,  but,  rendering  according  to  the 
emendations  which  were  judged  necessary,  especially 
such  as  are  suggested  by  the  ancient  versions. 

Simon,  ib.  c,  1,  23.    Ken.  Diss.  Gen,  §89.  note  108.    Beau- 
sobre,  ib.    Johnson's  Histor.  Account.    Macknight,  ib. 

315.  In  opposition  to  the  vernacular  versions  of 
Protestants,  Popish  versions  have  been  made  into 
several  language^,  generally  from  the  Vulgate,  but  not 
very  accurate. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  22. 

316.  Besides  versions  peculiar  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  versions  extending  to  the  whole  Scriptures, 
there  is  a  third  class,  those  of  particular  books. 


SECT.  VIIL' 

Distinctions  of  Versions, 

317.  In  recollecting  the  account  which  has  been 
given  of  the  versions  of  Scripture,  it  readily  occurs, 
that  they  are  distinguishable  into  different  classes,  and 
that  these  several  classes  are  useful,  in  different  ways, 
and  different  degrees. 

318.  Versions  are  either  ancient  or  modern.  The 
ancient  may  serve  both  for  ascertaining  the  true  read- 
ing, and  for  interpreting  the  sense ;  the  modern  can 
answer  only  the  latter  of  these  purposes. 


94  DISTINCTIONS  OF  VERSIONS. 

319.  Versions  are  either  independent,  taken  imme- 
diately from  the  originals ;  or  derived,  rendered  from 
another  version. 

320.  To  which  of  these  classes  a  version  belongs, 
may  be  known  either  by  testimony,  or  by  internal 
marks.  Thus,  a  version  shews  itself  to  be  derived, 
by  copying  the  errors  or  peculiarities  of  another,  by 
coinciding  with  another  in  very  obscure  and  doubtful 
passages,  by  mistaken  renderings,  accountable  only 
from  a  natural  misconception  of  the  language  of 
another. 

321.  Independent  versions  alone  are  directly  useful 
for  ascertaining  the  readings  of  the  original ;  derived 
versions  can  shew  only  the  ancient  reading  of  the  ver- 
sion from  which  they  were  taken  ;  but  may,  by  pre- 
serving it,  contribute  indirectly  to  the  emendation  of 
the  original. 

322.  Versions  are  either  literal,  expressing  the 
original,  word  for  word :  or  free,  intended  to  give 
the  sense  clearly,  without  adhering  scrupulously  to 
the  words. 

323.  Literal  versions  show  the  readings  of  the 
copies  from  which  they  were  taken  ;  and  they  are  the 
fittest  for  public  use,  as  being  simplest,  most  perma- 
nently intelligible,  and  not  unduly  limiting  the  sense. 

Simon,  passim.     Michael.  §  73. 

324.  A  version  is  too  literal,  when  it  retains  idioms 
which,  in  the  language  of  the  version,  convey  a  sense 
totally  different  from  that  of  the  original. 


USE  OF  VERSIONS.  95 

325.  But,  to  be  truly  literal,  a  version  should  retain 
the  turn  of  expression  of  the  original,  as  far  as  it  is  at 
all  consistent  with  the  language  of  that  version ;  peculiar 
idioms,  it  should  render  in  words  expressive  of  their 
sense ;  ambiguous  words  or  phrases,  it  should  trans- 
late, if  possible,  by  such  as  are  equally  ambiguous  ;  it 
should  neither  unnecessarily  depart  from  the  order  of 
words  in  the  original,  nor  adhere  to  it,  in  cases  where 
it  would  render  the  sense  equivocal ;  it  should,  as  far 
as  possible,  preserve  the  manner  and  spirit  of  the 
original. 

326.  Free  versions  always  determine  the  original  to 
one  certain  sense,  rendering  obscure  expressions  by  such 
as  are  clear,  and  ambiguous  expressions  by  words 
answering  only  to  one  of  their  significations.  They 
are,  thus,  a  sort  of  commentary ;  but  give  only  the 
interpretation,  without  the  reasons  of  it. 


SECT.  IX. 
Of  the  Use  of  Versions  for  determining  readings. 

327.  The  original  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  Greek  of  the  New,  are  the  fountains  and  standards, 
by  which  all  versions  ought  to  be  examined ;  but  it 
follows  not  from  this,  that  versions  may  not  be  of  use, 
for  determining  the  true  reading,  and  of  authority,  for 
establishing  a  reading  different  from  that  which  is  now 
commonly  received. 

WaltoDi  Prol.  6.  §  8.  Prol.  7,    Houbig.  Prol.  c.  3.  a.  3. 

Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  323.  Diss.  Gen.  §  44 — 49,  63,  136.  Pfaff.  cap, 
12.  can.  2, 


96  USE  OF  VERSIONS. 

328.  To  allow  this  authority  to  versions,  is  not  to 
prefer  a  copy  to  the  original ;  it  is  only  to  collect  from 
them,  what  was  the  reading  in  the  MSS.  of  the  original 
from  which  they  were  taken ;  and,  because  these  were 
more  ancient  and  more  correct  than  any  which  we  now 
have,  to  prefer  that  reading  to  what  is  found  in  later 
and  less  correct  transcripts. 

329.  But  in  applying  versions  to  this  purpose, 
several  cautions  are  necessary,  for  our  determining 
how  the  translators  really  read. 

330.  The  versions  have  undergone  alterations  and 
corruptions  by  transcribers,  even  more  than  the  origi- 
nals. Before  adopting,  therefore,  a  reading  from  a 
version,  we  must  be  certain  that  it  is  in  that  place 
uncorrupted  ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  a  correction  of  the 
several  ancient  versions,  by  a  collation  of  all  the 
known  copies  of  them,  would  be  of  great  importance. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  3.  c.  1. 

331.  It  is  only  when  it  appears  that  translators 
understood  the  orignal,  and  rendered  justly  from  it,  that 
their  version  can  give  authority  to  a  particular  reading. 

332.  From  their  adding  or  omitting  words,  agree- 
ably to  the  genius  of  the  language  in  which  they  wrote, 
it  cannot  be  inferred,  that  they  found  in  their  copies 
words  answering  to  these. 

Michael.  §  29. 

333.  When  they  give  a  sense  equivalent  to  that  of 
the  present  copies  of  the  original,  though  not  literal, 
we  ought  not  to  presume  that  they  read  differently. 

Michael,  ib.    Walton,  Prol.  6.  §  11. 


USE  OF  VERSIONS. 


97 


334.  Sometimes,  even  when  they  seem  to  give  the 

sense  of  a  reading  different  from  the  present,  they  yet 

had  the  same  reading,  but  affixed  to  the  word  another 

signification  ;    and,  therefore,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 

readings  followed   by  them,  an  accurate  knowledge  of 

the  original  languages,  in  their  full  extent,  is  highly 

needful. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  2.  c.  5. 

Psal.   xxii.    title,    nV«,    commonly   "kind.'*      70.    ctvrar,-<^ii 

"defence,  assistance.^     But  thej  read  not  differently,  for 

they  render  'mV«  ver.  19.  ^or.hiccv. 
Simon,  ib.  c.  7. 

335.  But  there  are  cases  in  which  it  is  clear  that  the 
authors  of  the  ancient  versions  had  readings  in  the 
original  different  from  the  present,  and  what  these 
readings  were  ;  as,  when  the  expression  in  both  is  per- 
fectly definite,  or,  when  the  version  suits  a  word  very 
similar  to  the  present ;  and,  in  these  cases,  both  read- 
ings ought  to  be  fairly  compared  and  examined,  and 
that  preferred  which  is  on  the  whole  best  supported. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  11.  L  2.  c.  5.     H«ubig.  Prol.     Walton,  ib. 

§9,  10. 
Gen.  ii.  2.   "  On  the  seventh  day  God  ended  his  work."     Heb.. 

Chald.— "siar^/i,"  70.  :^am.  Syr. 
Simon,  ib.  Houbig.  ib.  &  in  loc.    Cleric,  in  loc. 

^SQ,  A  reading,  certainly  expressed  in  aa  ancient 
version,  is  of  the  same  authority  as  if  it  had  been  found 
in  a  MS.  of  the  age  when  that  version  was  made  ;  and 
consequently,  of  greater  authority  than  if  found  in  any 
single  MS.  now  extant ;  and  that  in  proportion  to  the 
superior  antiquity  of  the  version. 
18 


98  USE  OF  VERSIONS. 

337.  Though  it  would  seem  that  no  single  version 
can  have  sufficient  authority  to  establish  a  reading  in 
opposition  to  the  copies  of  the  original,  and  the  other 
versions,  yet,  in  some  very  particular  cases,  it  may  have 
even  this  authority  ;  as,  for  instance,  when  there  is 
evidence  that  the  original  and  the  other  versions  have 
been  corrupted  in  that  place. 

338.  In  like  manner,  if  the  present  reading  of  the 
original  be  absurd,  or  yield  no  sense,  a  single  version 
may  give  probability  to  another  reading,  especially 
when  from  it  the  present  reading  might  have  naturally 
arisen. 

339.  The  reading  of  a  single  ancient  version  may 
receive  considerable  weight,  from  its  being  suitable  to 
the  sense,  the  connexion,  or  parallel  places. 

Num.  xxii.  22.    *' And  God's  anger  was  kindled  because  he 

^vent, and   the   angel   of  the    Lord    stood,"    &c. 

Arab,  inserts   "  from  greediness,"  according  to  2  I'eter  ii. 
15.     Some  Ileb.  MSS. 

Ken.  in  loc.  &  Diss.  Gen.  §  44,  1C5. 
Prov.  xix.  1.  *'  Better  is  the  poor  that  walketh  in  his  integrity, 
than  he  that  is  perverse  in  his  lips,  and  is  sifooL^^  No  anti- 
thesis in  poor  and  fool,  walketh  and  lips,  no  sentiment. 
Syr.  "  ways,  though  he  be  richy  This  gives  a  proper  sense. 
VD-n  ''ways,''  in  above  30  iMSS.  r^y  ''rich:'  Collect, 
var.  road.  (Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  286.)  Yulg.  "  dives  et  insipicns." 
Confiimed  by  Prov.  xxviii.  6. 

Houbi^.  in  loc.     Ken.  in  loc.  &  Diss    1.  p.  509.  Diss.  2. 
p.  287.     Diss.  Gen.  §  179. 

340.  The  concurrence  of  several  independent  ancient 
versions  in  a  reading,  renders  it  highly  probable  ;  as  it 


USE  OF  VERSIONS.  99 

shews  the  concuiTence  of  at  least  as  many  very  ancient 
MSSv  perhaps  of  different  ages  and  countries. 

341.  The  concurrence  of  all  the  ancient  versions  in 
a  reading  is  sufficient  for  establishing  it,  though  it 
should  not  be  found  in  any  MSS.  now  extant ;  for  it 
shews  that  it  took  place  in  many  MSS.  so  ancient,  that 
a  few  of  them  ought  to  outweigh  a  great  number  of 
such  as  are  vastly  more  modern. 

342.  If  a  reading  indicated  by  any,  by  several,  or 
by  all  the  ancient  versions,  is  likewise  found  in  some 
MSS.  still  extant,  this  will  add  to  the  authority  of  such 
reading,  proportionably  to  the  number  or  antiquity  of 
the  MSS.,  provided  that  neither  have  these  been 
altered  in  conformity  to  the  versions,  nor  the  versions 
in  conformity  to  them. 

343.  If,  in  the  books  of  Moses,  the  reading  follow- 
ed by  ancient  versions  be  likewise  found  in  the  Sama- 
ritan Pentateuch,  this  makes  a  great  addition  to  the 
evidence  which  they  would  have  otherwise  had,  and 
generally  renders  them  certain. 

344.  When  all  the  copies  of  the  original,  and  all  the 
versions,  agree  in  a  reading,  it  is  certainly  the  true 
one;  and,  as  that  is,  in  general,  the  case,  we  have 
absolute  assurance  of  the  authenticity  and  purity  of  the 
Scriptures  in  general,  greater  assurance  than  with 
regard  to  any  other  book  whatever. 


100  USE  OF  VERJSIOiNS. 

SECT.  X. 

Of  the  Use  of  Versions  for  Interpretation. 

345.  Versions  contribute  much  to  the  interpre- 
tation of  Scripture. 

346.  It  is  only  by  means  of  versions,  that  they 
who  are  ignorant  of  the  original  languages  can  at  all 
learn  what  the  Scripture  contains ;  and  every  ver- 
sion, so  far  as  it  is  just,  conveys  the  sense  of  Scripture 
to  those  who  understand  the  language  in  which  it  is 
written. 

347.  Though  they  who  have  the  means  of  under- 
standing the  originals,  especially  the  teachers  of  reli- 
gion, ought  not  to  satisfy  themselves  with  versions, 
yet  there  is  scarcely  any  version  which  does  not 
express  the  sense  of  Scripture,  so  far  as  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  be  known  by  those,  who  have  no 
other  means  of  learning  it.  , 

348.  Versions  give  great  assistance  for  understand- 
ing the  sense  of  Scripture,  even  to  those  who  are 
acquainted  with  the  originals,  wherever  the  translators 
were  more  skilful  in  these  languages,  or  bestowed 
greater  attention,  or  had  superior  advantages  of  any 
kind. 

349.  As  some  versions  are  made  with  greater  skill 
and  exactness  than  others,  and  some  parts  of  every 
version,  with  greater  than  other  parts  of  it ;  the  com- 


USE  OF  VEKSIONS.  101 

paiison  of  different  versions,  and  the  selection  of  the 
preferable  renderings  from  them  all,  would  contribute 
very  much  to  our  obtaining  the  true  sense  of  Scripture. 

350.  Neither  the  ancient  versions,  nor  the  modern, 
ought  to  be  preferred  absolutely,  and  in  all  cases  ;  for 
the  deviations  of  later  translators  from  the  renderings 
of  the  earlier,  are  sometimes  to  the  better,  and  some- 
times to  the  worse. 

351.  Though  it  be  certain,  that  the  authors  of  the 
ancient  versions  often  followed  readings  different  from 
those  in  the  present  text;  yet,  in  many  cases,  we 
ought  to  conclude,  that  they  only  rendered  the  reading 
which  we  still  have,  in  a  sense  not  affixed  to  it  by  the 
moderns ;  as,  when  they  frequently  give  the  same 
rendering  of  the  same  word,  or,  when  that  word  has 
still,  in  any  of  the  kindred  languages,  the  same  signifi- 
cation which  they  assign  to  it. 

Houbig    Prol.  c.  3.  a.  4. 

352.  Significations  of  words,  in  this  manner  pointed 
cut  by  the  ancient  versions,  are  significations  which 
we  may  be  sure  that  the  words  really  had  ;  and  we 
may,  without  scruple,  prefer  them  to  the  more  modern 
and  common  renderings,  when  the  sense  or  other  cir- 
cumstances give  countenance  to  them. 

S53.  The  ancient  versions,  being  the  works  of  men 
who  had  several  advantages  above  the  moderns  for 
understanding  the  original  languages,  and  the  phraseol- 
ogy of  Scripture ;  and  those  of  the  Old  Testament,  in 
particular,  being  one  of  the  principal  means  by  which 


102  USE  OF  VERSIONS. 

the  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  was  recovered,  and,  bj 
more  careful  attention  to  which,  it  might  be  rendered 
still  more  perfect ;  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  they  gener- 
ally give  us  the  true  sense  of  Scripture,  and  that  often 
in  places  where  we  could  scarcely  have  discovered  it 
by  any  other  means. 

Pocock,  Porta  Mosis,  c.  1.     Michael,  §  46. 

351.  That  a  version  may  exhibit  the  true  sense  of 
Scripture,  it  must  translate  it  as  it  really  lies,  without 
regard  to  any  consequences  which  may  seem  to  follow 
from  a  genuine  translation,  or  to  the  prejudices  or 
peculiar  tenets  of  the  translator  ;  but  very  few  versions 
are  perfectly  unexceptionable  in  this  respect. 

355.  A  version  of  the  Scriptures  might  be  made, 
which  would  exhibit  the  sense  of  Scripture  more  truly 
and  accurately  than  any  now  extant,  though  it  would 
be  attended  with  great  difficulties  ;  and  none  can,  per- 
haps, be  expected  absolutely  unexceptionable. 

356.  Such  a  version  should  not  SQupulously  adhere 
to  the  text,  as  commonly  received,  but  follow  those 
readings  which  appear  to  be  most  genuine ;  and,  for 
this  purpose,  it  is  prerequisite  to  our  obtaining  such  a 
version,  that  the  preferable  readings  should  be  every 
where  ascertained,  by  a  collation  of  the  copies,  not 
only  of  the  original,  but  also  of  the  several  ancient 
versions;  and  it  would  be  proper  that,  when  a  reading 
is  found  clearly  preferable,  it  should  be  translated  ; 
but,  when  the  true  reading  is  doubtful,  the  commonly 
received  one  should  be  rendered  in  the  text ;  and  that, 
in  both  cases,  the  renderings  of  all  the  other  readings 


USE  OF  VERSIONS.  105 

which   have   any    degree   of    plausibility,    should   be 
marked  in  the  margin. 
Simon,  V.T.  1.  S.  c.  1. 

357.  In  such  a  version,  that  meaning  of  the  orig- 
inal words  should  be  given  in  every  place,  which 
appears  to  be  in  that  place  most  proper ;  in  determin- 
ing which,  tj|p  translator  should  not  confine  himself  to 
those  significations  of  words  which  have  been  adopted 
by  the  Rabbins,  and  from  them  by  modern  lexicog- 
raphers ;  but  should  attend  to  all  the  significations 
which  either  kindred  languages  or  ancient  versions 
shew  to  have  really  belonged  to  the  words  ;  and,  while 
the  text  expresses  what  appears  to  be  the  genuine 
translation  of  every  passage,  the  different  senses  of 
which  the  word  is  capable,  especially  those  which  it 
clearly  has  in  other  places,  should  be  marked  in  the 
margin,  if  they  can  be  at  all  applicable  in  that  passage. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  2. 

S58.  Such  idioms  of  the  original  languages  as  are 
ambiguous,  should  be  either  retained  in  the  version,  or 
rendered  in  words  capable  of  the  same  ambiguity ;  but, 
idioms  which  have  a  clear  and  precise  import,  should 
not  be  copied,  but  expressed  in  that  form  of  words 
w  hich,  in  the  language  into  which  the  version  is  made, 
express  that  import  with  greatest  propriety  and  exact- 
ness. 

359.  A  version  of  the  Scripture  should  be  varied,  so 
as  to  express  the  spirit  and  manner  of  the  several  parts 
of  it.  This  will  be  most  effectually  done,  not  by  ser- 
vilely copying  the  style  of  the  original,  but  by  exhib- 


104  USE  OF  VERSIONS. 

iting  the  several  sentiments  and  affections  painted  by 
it,  in  those  terms  which  one  possessed  by  the  same 
sentiments  and  affections,  would  naturally  use  for 
expressing  them,  in  the  language  of  the  version  ;  and, 
by  preserving  the  same  species  of  style  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  usage  of  that  language,  comes  nearest  to  the 
style  of  the  original. 
Lowtli's  Isaiah,  Prelim.  Diss.  p.  35,  &c.  • 

360.  So  many  things  being  prerequisite  to  a  perfect 
version  of  the  Scriptures,  all  of  which  have  not  been 
as  yet  even  attempted,  it  must  be  long  before  a  perfect 
version  can  be  expected ;  and,  indeed,  the  difficulties 
are  so  great,  particularly,  in  every  where  determining 
the  best  reading  and  the  true  sense,  that,  with  all  the 
means  which  we  have  of  surmounting  them,  a  version 
of  the  whole  Scripture,  absolutely  perfect,  can  scarcely, 
perhaps,  be  at  all  expected  ;  but  every  approach  to  it 
is  highly  desirable  and  important. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  S.  c.  1—4. 


KINDS  OF  COMPOSITION.  105 


CHAP.  V. 

The  Circumstances  relating  to  the  Books  of 
Scripture. 

361.  There  are  several  circumstances  relating  to 
the  books  of  Scripture,  knowledge  of  which  is,  in 
some  degree  or  other,  useful  in  criticism  ;  the  species 
of  composition,  the  author,  the  time,  the  occasion  of 
writing,  the  design  of  the  book,  its  plan,  and  the  con- 
nexion of  the  parts. 

Glass.  Philol.  Sacr.  1.  2.  p.  2,  §  2. 

362.  When  these  circumstances  cannot  be  ascertain- 
ed, as  in  some  cases  they  are  not  easily  or  certainly  de- 
terminable, it  necessarily  occasions  some  measure  of 
obscurity  or  ambiguity. 

3QS,  But,  in  many  cases,  these  several  circumstan- 
ces may  be  determined  with  certainty,  or  with  consid- 
erable probability ;  either  externally,  by  testimony ; 
or,  internally,  from  hints  and  indications  in  the  books 
themselves ;  and,  wherever  they  can,  they  throw  light, 
some  more,  some  less,  upon  the  Scriptures. 


SECT.  L 

Of  the  Kinds  of  Composition  in  Scripture, 

364.  The  Scripture  consists  of  many  books,  on  dif- 
ferent subjects,  belonging  to  different  species  of  compo- 
14 


106  KINDS  OF  COMPOSITION. 

sition,  and  written  in  different  manners ;  each  of  which 
has  its  peculiar  structure  and  rules ;  and  these  must  be 
attended  to,  and  understood,  in  order  to  our  entering 
thoroughly  into  either  its  sense  or  its  beauties. 

365.  In  respect  of  their  subjects,  the  books  of  Scrip- 
ture are  historical,  didactical,  devotional  or  prophetical ; 
and,  in  respect  of  their  manner  of  composition,  either 
prosaical  or  poetical. 

'  S66.  All  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  and  all 
the  historical  books  of  the  Old,  are  written  in  prose ; 
the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament  is,  in  general,  poetical. 

367.  The  history  of  the  Bible  is,  properly,  sacred 
history ;  it  is  the  history  of  the  world,  considered  pre- 
cisely as  God's  world,  as  wholly  governed  by  him  ; 
and  is  directly  calculated  for  unfolding  the  designs  of 
his  providence.  * 

Butler's  Anal.  p.  2. 

368.  The  prevailing  character  of  the  Scripture  his- 
tory is  simplicity. 

369.  The  whole  of  Scripture  history  is  carried  on 
in  a  dramatic  manner,  introducing  persons  as  speaking 
and  conferring;  which  has  great  simplicity,  and  a 
great  effect  in  expressing  sentiments,  suited  to  partic- 
ular characters,  whether  good  or  bad. 

Kaimes's  Sketches,  5,  2. 

370.  All  the  didactic  books  of  the  New  Testament 
are  in  prose,  and  in  the  epistolary  form  ;  which  occa- 
sions several  peculiarities,  necessary  to  be  attended  to. 


KINDS  OF  COMPOSITION.  107 

for  understanding    them ;    and   they   consist,   almost 
wholly,  of  argumentation  and  morality. 

371.  All  the  didactical  and  devotional  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  with  some  hymns  and  songs,  inter- 
spersed in  the  other  books,  are  generally  acknowledged 
to  be  poetical ;  though  the  precise  nature  and  rules  of 
Hebrew  metre  cannot  now  be  accurately  defined. 

372.  The  prophetical  parts  of  the  New  Testament 
are  certainly  in  prose ;  and  it  has  been  the  general 
opinion,  that  the  prophetical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  likewise  in  prose ;  but,  that  these  are,  for 
the  most  part,  though  not  the  whole  of  them,  really 
poetical,  seems  now  to  be  proved  with  sufficient  evi- 
dence, particularly  from  the  conformity  of  their  struc- 
ture, to  that  of  the  confessedly  poetical  books,  in  every 
essential  circumstance. 

Lowth,  Poes.  Hebr.  praslect.  18,  19.     Prel.  Diss.  p.  2,  &c. 
Herder's  Dialogues  on  Hebrew  Poetry. 

373.  The  true  pronunciation  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage Slaving  been  lost  for  many  ages,  the  precise  na- 
ture of  its  poetry  cannot  now  be  discovered ;  but  it 
seems  plainly  to  be  characterised  by  periods  of  corres- 
pondent members,  one  synonymous  with,^  amplifying,* 
or  contrasted  to,  another ;  ^  and  similar  in  their  length 
and  structure ;  all  which  appears  even  in  a  literal  ver- 
sion. 

Lowth,  Prel.  Diss.  p.  11.  &c.    Herder,  ib. 

^  Psal.  ii.  1. — "  Why  do  the  heathen  rage. 

And  the  people  imagine  a  vain  thing  ? 
3.  Let  us  break  their  bands  asunder, 


108  KINDS  OF  COMPOSITION. 

And  cast  away  their  cords  from  us, 
2  Psal.  iii.  3. — But  thou,  0  Lord,  art  a  shield  for  me ; 

My  glory  and  the  lifter  up  of  my  head. 
^   Prov.  X.  1. — A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father; 

But  a  foolish  son  is  the  heaviness  of  his  mother." 

374  The  Hebrew  poetry  is  remarkable  for  concise- 
ness ;  the  sentences  are  short,  no  superfluous  words. 

375.  It  is,  likewise,  highly  figurative,  and  abounds 
w^ith  the  noblest  and  most  beautiful  metaphors  and 
comparisons,  derived  from  a  variety  of  sources ;  pro- 
sopopeias ;  bold  transitions ;  abrupt  change  of  per- 
sons ;  and,  in  general,  all  the  acknowledged  ornaments 
of  discourse. 

376.  In  consequence  of  both  these  qualities,  it  is 
strong,  bold,  and  nervous. 

377.  It  is  a  great  beauty  in  the  Hebrew  poetry,  and 
contributes  much  to  perspicuity,  that  the  same  set  of 
images  are  constantly  appropriated  to  the  same  sub- 
jects. 

Lowth's  Isa.  ii.  13.  m 

"  Mountains,"  for  states.    "  Cedars,  oaks,"  potentates,  princes. 

"  Towers,  fortresses,"  protectors.     "  Ships,"  merchants. 

378.  The  Bible  exhibits  specimens  of  almost  all 
kinds  of  poetry  ;  agreeing  in  the  same  general  features, 
but  with  differences  suitable  to  the  peculiar  nature  of 
each ;  didactic,  in  the  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  many 
of  the  Psalms ;  elegiac,  in  Jeremiah's  Lamentation,  and 
several  lesser  pieces ;  pastoral,  in  Solomon's  Song ; 
and  lyric,  in  hymns,  as  most  of  the  Psalms,  and  seve- 


KINDS  OF  COMPOSITION.  109 

ral  interspersed  both  in  the  historical  and  prophetical 
books ;  besides  Job,  the  nature  of  which  is  disputed. 

379.  Besides  all  these,  the  Bible  contains  a  species 
of  poetry  peculiar  to  itself,  the  prophetical ;  which, 
though  perhaps  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  others, 
in  respect  of  its  poetry,  is,  in  respect  of  its  subject,  pre- 
diction, a  very  peculiar  kind  of  composition  ;  but,  most 
of  its  peculiarities  being  such  as  occasion  difficulties, 
they  belong,  most  properly,  to  the  second  part. 

380.  The  structure  of  the  Hebrew  poetry  sometimes 
serves  for  detecting  a  mistake  in  our  present  copies, 
and  for  suggesting  or  confirming  the  true  reading. 

Lowth,  Prel.  Diss.  p.  37,  40. 

Psal.  xxxviii.  19.  "  Mine  enemies  lively  (O^TI  living)  they  are 

strong ; 

And  they  that  hate  me  wrongfully  are  multiplied." 
Lively  is   not  synonymous  with  wrongfuUy^-'Suggests  QJn, 

without  cause.    This  confirmed  from  Psal.  Ixix.  4.  where 

this  word  is   put  parallel   to  "ipiy,  here   used,  but  where 

there  seems  to  be  another  mistake.     Literally  it  runs, 
"  They  are  multiplied  more  than  the  hairs  of  my  head,  that 

hate  me  without  cause; 
They  are  increased  that  would  destroy  me, 
('n'D2fD)  mine  enemies  wrongfully." 
Not  parallel — suggests  *nD:fD,  "  more  than  my  looks."    So  7 

MSS. 

Lowth,  ib. 

381.  The  structure  of  the  Hebrew  poetry  may  like- 
wise contribute  to  the  interpretation  of  Scripture,  by 
indicating  in  what  sense  an  obscure  or  ambiguous  word 
ought  to  be  taken  in  a  particular  place. 

Lowth,  ib.  p.  37 — 39. 


110  AUTHORS  OF  BOOKS. 

Isa.  xxviii.  14.  «  Wherefore,  hear  the  word  of  the  Lord,  ye 

scoffers. 
Ye  who  rule  (^Vk^D)  this  people  in  Jerusalem." 
The  word  signifies  not  only  to  rule,  but  to  speak  parables  or  sen- 
tentious sayings,  which  is  parallel  to  scoffers.    One  of  their  sayings 
is  instanced  in  ver.  15. 

"  We  have  made  a  covenant  with  death, 

And  with  hell  are  we  at  agreement.^* 
So  nm  must,  from  the  nature  of  the  poetry,  signify  here,  as 
well  as  nun  v.  18.;  but  it  does  so  nowhere  else. 
Lowth,  ib.     Vitringa  in  loc. 
Ver.  18.  "  Your  covenant  with  death  shall  be  broken, 
And  your  agreement  with  hell  shall  not  stand." 
Either  li3D  must  here  signify  to  break,  which  it  does  nowhere 
else;  or,  more  probably,  the  true  reading  is  nan.     Chald. 
So  Isa.  viii.  10. 
Lowth,  ib.     Houbig.  in  loc. 


SECT.  II. 

Of  the  Authors  of  the  Books  of  Scripture. 

382.  To  know  who  are  the  authors  of  the  several 
books  of  Scripture,  is  necessary,  chiefly  for  establish- 
ing their  authority  and  inspiration ;  in  which  light  it 
belongs  to  another  part  of  our  plan  ;  but  it  is,  in  some 
degree,  conducive  likewise  to  our  understanding  them ; 
and  it  is  in  this  view  only,  that  it  claims  our  present 
notice. 

383.  We  are  abundantly  certain  concerning  the  au- 
thors of  most  of  the  books  of  Scripture,  though  we  be 
ignorant  of  many  particulars  about  them,  which  it 
might  be  desirable  or  useful  to  know. 


AUTHORS  OF  BOOKS.  Ill 

384.  Though  all  the  authors  of  Scripture  be  inspir- 
ed, yet,  in  regard  to  their  manner  of  writing,  they  are 
left  to  follow  each  his  own  genius,  turn  of  thought,  and 
mode  of  expression ;  in  all  which  there  is  great  diver- 
sity ;  and  attention  to  this  will  contribute  to  our  read- 
ing their  works  both  with  pleasure  and  with  advantage. 

385.  An  author's  peculiar  character  may  sometimes 
contribute  to  our  determining  the  true  reading ;  for, 
among  various  readings,  equally  supported,  that  ought 
to  be  preferred,  which  is  agreeable  to  the  author^s 
style  and  manner. 

386.  But  knowledge  of  the  author's  history,  situa- 
tion, and  manner  of  conceiving  and  expressing  things, 
contributes  much  more  to  our  entering  into  his  full 
meaning,  and  is  often  absolutely  necessary  for  this  pur- 
pose.     • 

387.  An  author's  situation  and  circumstances  will 
sometimes  account  for  his  choice  of  matter,  for  his  omit- 
ting some  topics,  and  enlarging  upon  others. 

Mark  is  silent  concerning  things  honourable  to  Peter,  and 
large  on  his  faults.  He  was  his  companion,  and  wrote  from 
his  information. 

Lardner's  Credibility,  Supplem.    c.  7.  §  5,  8.      Jones's 
Method  of  Canon.  P.  3. 

388.  In  the  historical  books  of  scripture,  there  is 
great  uniformity  of  manner ;  thougli,  even  in  these, 
some  minute  varieties  may  be  discerned,  together  with 
considerable  differences  of  style. 


112  AUTHORS  OF  BOOKS. 

389.  In  the  poetical  and  prophetical  books,  there  is 
very  great  variety ;  every  writer  having  his  own  char- 
acter and  manner  very  strongly  marked. 

Lowth,  Sac.  Poes.  Heb.  prselect.  21.  Prelim.  Diss,  to  Isaiah, 

Blair,  Rhet.  lect.  41. 
David  various,  but  excels  in  the  tender.     Ibid. 
The  writer  of  Job  highly  figurative,  and  characterised  by  strength 

of  description. 
Isaiah  has  all  the  excellences  of  composition,  but  is  eminent 

for  sublimity.     Ibid. 

Jeremiah  is  tender  and  pathetic.     Ibid. 

Ezekiel  is  bold,  vehement,  and  ardent,  and  often  enigmatical. 

Ibid. 
Hosea  is  concise  and  sententious,  lively,  but  obscure.    Ibid. 

and  Horsley's  Hosea. 
Amos  has  no  very  remarkable  characteristic.     Ibid. 
Micah  is  concise  and  lively,  often  elevated  and  vehement.  Ibid. 
Joel  elegant,  clear,  fluent  and  figurative.     Ibid. 
Nahum  is  august,  bold,  and  regular.     Ibid.  ^ 

390.  The  other  parts  of  Scripture,  in  which  pecu- 
liarities of  manner  chiefly  appear,  are  the  argumenta- 
tive parts.  The  principal  of  these  are  the  writings  of 
Paul,  who  was  plainly  a  man  eminent  for  extensive 
views,  warmth  of  imagination,  and  quickness  of  con- 
ception ;  and  this  turn  of  mind  occasions  several  pecu- 
liarities in  his  manner,  which  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  attend  to,  in  order  to  our  understanding  his  epistles. 

Locke's  Essay  on  Epistles.  Taylor,  Pref.  to  Romans.  Mack- 
night  on  Epistles,  Ess.  3. 
Care  to  guard  against  exceptions  producing  long  parentheses. 
Rom.  ii.  12.  connected  with  v.  16.  the  intermediate  verses  a 
parenthesis,  guarding  against  exceptions  to  both  his  asser- 
tions in  V.  12. 

Locke,  Taylor,  Macknight,  in  loc. 


TIMES  OF  WRITING.  113 

Carrying  on  different  designs  at  once.  Rom.  xiii.  1 — 8.  prin- 
cipally *the  duty  of  subjects,'  but  along  with  this,  *  the 
grounds  and  end  of  civil  government.'  lid.  Prosecuting 
a  design  by  complicated  means. 


SECT.  III. 

Of  the  Times  of  writing  the  Books  of  Scripture. 

39  L  The  books  of  Scripture  are  the  works  of  dif- 
ferent, and  very  distant,  ages ;  and  each  of  them  bears 
some  characters,  derived  from  the  age  in  which  it  was 
written. 

392.  The  age,  in  which  almost  all  the  books  of 
Scripture  were  written,  is  easily  enough  determined. 

393.  Though  there  be  great  difficulty  in  ascertain- 
ing the  precise  date  of  many  of  the  books  of  Scripture, 
yet  that  of  several  of  them  may  be  determined  with 
sufficient  evidence  ;  and  whenever  it  can  be  determin- 
ed, it  will  shew  the  beauty  of  some  figure,  the  force  of 
some  expression,  or  the  full  meaning  of  some  passage. 

394.  Hence  it  has  often  been  mentioned,  as  what 
would  be  of  considerable  use,  that  the  books  of  Scrip- 
ture be  placed,  or,  at  least,  read,  in  the  order  in  which 
they  were  written. 

395.  Knowledge  of  the  time  when  a  book  was 
written,  sometimes  shews  the  reason,  and  the  propriety 
of  things  said  in  it. 

15 


114  TIMES  OF  WRITING. 

1  Thess.  V.  27.  "  I  charge  (o^tct^a)  you  by  the  Lord,  that  this 
Epistle  be  read  unto  all  the  holy  brethren."  So  solemn  an 
adjuration  seems  unnecessary.  But  this  was  the  first  writ- 
ten book  of  the  New  Testament ;  only  tlie  Old  Testament 
was  publicly  read  before.  It  is  a  charge  to  read  this  as  an 
inspired  book  ;  a  declaration  that  it  is  canonical.  This  was 
proper,  and  extends  to  the  after  books  of  the  apostles. 

Lardner's  Credibility,  Supplem.  c.  12.  §  2.  c.  25.  §  2. 

396.  Inattention  to,  or  ignorance  of,  the  real  date  of 
a  book,  often  occasions  mistakes  concerning  the  mean- 
ing of  particular  passages. 

Lardner,  ib.  c.  12. 

2  Cor.  xi.  25.  "  Thrice  I  suffered  shipwreck."  That  mention- 
ed Acts  xxvii.  not  one  of  these,  for  it  was  posterior  to  his 
writing. 

Lardner,  ib. 
1  Cor.  XV.  S2.  "  I  have  fought  with  beasts  at  Ephesus."  It 
refers  not  to  Demetrius's  riot,  Acts  xix.,  for  that  was  poste- 
rior to  his  writing.  Probably  he  had,  before  this,  been  really 
exposed  to  fight  with  wild  beasts,  intimated  by  his  saying, 
"  after  the  manner  of  men,"  according  to  a  custom  of  men. 

Benson,  Hist,  of  Christian,  b.  S.  c.  7.  s.  3.     Whitby  in  loc. 

Lightfoot,  vol.  1.  p.  298.    Macknight  in  loc. 

397.  Knowledge  of  the  precise  date  is  peculiarly  of 
importance,  with  respect  to  the  prophecies  and  the 
epistles. 

398.  This  knowledge  would  often  throw^  light  on 
several  particulars  of  a  prediction ;  and  is  sometimes 
absolutely  necessary  for  ascertaining  the  event  designed, 
and  for  perceiving  the  accomplishment,  especially  when 
it  was  near. 

399.  The  true  date  of  a  prediction  is  often  sufficient 
for  confuting  a  false  application  of  it,  and  must  be  ex- 


OCCASIONS  OF  BOOKS.  115 

plained  away  by  those  who  are  set  on  supporting  such 
application. 

Grotius  was  determined  to  apply  the  prediction  of  "the  man 
of  sin,"  2  Thess.  ii.  to  Caligula ;  he  therefore  labours,  but 
in  vain,  to  prove  that  the  Epistle  was  written  A.  38.  the  2d 
of  that  Emperor.  Its  true  date,  about  A.  52.  the  12th  of 
Claudius,  explodes  that  application. 

Grot.  Prsef.  in  2  Thess.     Benson's  Hist.  b.  3.  c.  5.  s.  10. 
Macknight,  Pref.  to  2  Thess. 

400.  To  dispose  all  the  different  predictions,  relat- 
ing to  the  same  event,  according  to  the  order  of  time 
in  which  they  were  delivered,  would  give  us  a  clear 
and  connected  view  of  them,  and  enable  us  to  perceive 
the  allusions  in  the  posterior  to  the  prior,  and  the  ad- 
ditional intimations  successively  conveyed. 

401 .  The  studying  of  the  Epistles  in  the  order  in  which 
they  were  written,  would  show  the  progressive  state  of 
things  in  the  Christian  church  ;  and  would,  by  this 
means,  throw  great  light  upon  them  all. 


SECT.  IV. 

Of  the  Occasions  of  the  Books  of  Scripture, 

402.  Almost  all  the  parts  of  Scripture  were  written 
on  particular  occasions,  to  which  they  have  more  or 
less  a  reference. 

403.  There  are  several  circumstances  which  may 
be  reduced  under  this  head  of  the  occasion  of  a  book, 
which  are  all  of  some,  though  not  of  equal,  importance. 


116  OCCASIONS  OF  BOOKS. 

404.  The  place  where,  and  the  situation  in  which, 
a  person  writes,  is  not  a  matter  of  mere  curiosity,  but 
often  throws  light  on  his  writing,  by  showing  the  pro- 
priety and  beauty  of  his  figures,  by  illustrating  his  allu- 
sions to  objects,  customs  or  opinions,  by  accounting  for 
particulars  which  he  mentions,  or  for  the  manner  in 
which  he  mentions  them. 

Many  figures  and  images  in  the  poetical  books  are  naturally 
suggested  by  the  scenes  amidst  which  they  were  written, 
and  thence  derive  great  additional  beauty.  Judea  was  parch- 
ed in  summer  ;  hence,  distress,  figured  by  drought ;  relief, 
by  showers  and  springs.  It  was  liable  to  torrents ;  hence 
allusions  to  them  frequent.  Liable  to  violent  storms  and 
earthquakes  ;  hence  many  metaphors  and  comparisons. 
Lowth,  Sac.  Poes.  Heb.     Blair,  Rhet.  ib. 

Mark  xv.  21.  Simon  is  described  as  "  the  father  of  Alexander 
and  Rufus."  Mark  wrote  his  Gospel  at  Rome,  where  these 
were  well  known,  Rom.  xvi.  13. 

405.  Knowledge  of  the  persons  for  whose  immedi- 
ate use  a  book  was  written,  of  their  situations,  opin- 
ions, and  customs,  is  of  still  greater  importance,  as  it 
often  accounts  both  for  the  selection  of  matter,  and  for 
the  manner  of  writing. 

Matthew  wrote  in  Judea,  for  the  immediate  use  of  the  Jews. 
Hence  his  being  particular  on  Christ's  genealogy ;  the  mas- 
sacre at  Bethlehem ;  the  sermon  on  the  mount ;  the  fulfil- 
ment of  prophecies ;  his  giving  no  explications  of  Jewish 
customs. 

Lardner's   Credib.   Suppl.    Michael.    §    88.   Macknight, 
Prel.  Obs.  6. 
Mark  wrote  at  Rome  for  the  use  of  the  Christians  there,  many 
of  whom  were  Gentiles.    Hence  his  omitting  the  above  par- 
ticulars, his  describing  places,  c.  i.  13.  and  Jewish  customs, 
c.  vii.  2,  3,  4. 
Michael,  ib. 


OCCASIONS  OF  BOOKS.  117 

406.  The  particular  occasion,  or  special  reason, 
for  writing  any  book  of  Scripture,  must  be  collected 
from  history,  from  intimations  in  other  parts  of  Scrip- 
ture, from  openings  in  the  book  itself;  and  is,  in  dif- 
ferent instances,  discoverable  with  different  degrees  of 
ease  and  certainty. 

407.  Knowledge  of  the  particular  occasion,  or  the 
special  reason  for  writing  any  part  of  Scripture,  is  of 
the  very  greatest  importance  for  throwing  light  upon 
it ;  as,  to  this,  it  often  has  a  reference  throughout. 

Psal.  xxiv.  was  written  for  the  proces&ion  at  brin^^ing  the  ark 
to  Mount  Zion.  This  gives  light  and  beauty  to  the  senti- 
ments, the  order,  and  the  expressions  of  the  whole. 

Delaunj,  Life  of  David.     Lowth,  Sac.  Poes.     Blair,  ib. 
Isa.  xxxvii.  22  -  34.  contains  Isaiah's  prediction  of  Hezekiah's 
deliverance  from  Sennacherib      The  occasion  of  it  is  mi- 
nutely related  from  the  beginning  of  ch.  xxxvi. ;  and  this 
renders  the  whole  clear ;  but  ignoranip  of  this  would  have 
occasioned  many  obscurities. 
Lowth  in  loc. 
The  occasion  of  1  Thess.  is  clear  from  Acts  xvii.  1,  &c.  and 
the  epistle  itself.     They  were  lately  converted,  imperfectly 
instructed,  and  exposed  to  persecution.     The  design  is  to 
preserve  them  steadfast ;  the  conduct  is  suited  to  their  situ- 
ation ;  the  practical  directions  are  adapted  to  young  con- 
verts, who  had  been  lately  Pagans. 
Benson,  Hist,  of  Christ,  and  Paraph. 
Macknight,  Pref.  to  1  Thess. 

408.  The  occasion  of  writing  any  part  of  Scripture, 
when  known,  is  of  great  use  for  ascertaining  the  scope 
and  design ;  which  should  be  determined  in  conformity 
to  that  occasion. 


118  OCCASIONS  OF  BOOKS. 

The  epistle  to  the  Galatians  was  occasioned  by  some  believing 
Jews  teaching  that  Gentile  Christians  were  obliged  to  ob- 
serve circumcision,  and  other  Jewish  rites  ;  ch.  ii.  3.  iv.  10. 
V.  2,  3.  comp.  with  Acts  xv.  1,  &c.  Hence  great  strifes  and 
animosities,  c.  v.  13,  14,  15.  Its  scope  is,  to  prove  the  Jew- 
ish ceremonial  not  obligatory ;  and,  by  this  means,  to  per- 
suade them  to  steadfastness  in  their  immunity  from  it,  and 
to  restore  them  to  peace  and  harmony. 

Locke,  Synops.  Benson,  Hist.  b.  3.  c.  5,  s.  11.  Michael. 
§  3.  Castalio.  Taylor,  Key,  §  305.  Macknight,  Pref.  to 
Galat. 

409.  The  occasion  throws  light  on  the  plan  of  a 
book,  and  the  several  topics  employed  in  it. 

Galat.  The  Judaizers  used  several  arguments  in  support  of 
their  false  doctrine.  1.  The  superior  authority  of  Peter 
and  the  other  apostles ;  2.  Paul's  own  former  opinion  and 
practice ;  3.  That  all  the  promises  are  made  to  the  chil- 
dren of  Abraham,  who  was  circumcised, — Plan,  a  confuta- 
tion of  these; — the  two  first  jointly  in  his  history  of  him- 
self, c.  i.  ii. — the  second  again,  c.  v.  11. — the  last,  c.  iii. 
iv.  The  praSical  exhortations  are  suitable  to  their  state 
of  dissension,  and  to  the  cause  of  it. 
Michael,  ib. 

410.  The  occasion  of  a  book  illustrates  the  meaning 
of  general  or  ambiguous  expressions,  which,  when  used 
in  reference  to  its  peculiar  subject,  should  be  deter- 
mined suitably  to  the  occasion. 

Locke,  Grot. 
Galat.  "Gospel,  Truth,"  signify,  mx)st  frequently,  "the 
whole  Christian  doctrine."  But,  when  used  in  reference 
to  the  subject  of  this  epistle,  have  a  much  more  restricted 
meaning,  « the  doctrine  of  the  immunity  of  the  Gentile 
Christians  from  the  Jewish  ceremonial,"  c.  i.  6—9.  ii.  2, 

5,  14.  iii.  1.  Vp  7. 
Locke,  in  loc. 


SeOPE  OF  BOOKS.  119 


SECT.  V. 

Of  the  Scope  and  Design  of  the  Books  of  Scripture, 

411.  The  scope  and  design  of  a  book  of  Scripture 
is  to  be  collected  from  its  known  occasion,  and  from 
attention  to  its  general  tenor,  to  the  tendency  of  the  sev- 
eral topics,  and  to  the  force  of  the  leading  expressions  ; 
for  perceiving  all  which,  repeated  and  connected  pe- 
rusals of  the  book  itself  are  the  best  means. 

Locke,  Essay  on  Epistles. 

412.  If  we  knew  all  the  purposes  which  the  inspir- 
ed writers  had  in  view,  in  their  several  books,  it  would 
lead  us  to  a  very  thorough  understanding  of  them  ;  but 
this  is  beyond  our  reach. 

413.  Such  knowledge  of  their  particular  design,  in 
writing,  as  we  can  attain,  will  contribute  very  much  to 
our  understanding  them,  and  that  in  proportion  to  its 
clearness  and  certainty ;  but  some  knowledge  of  it  is, 
in  many  cases,  absolutely  necessary  for  our  at  all  en- 
tering into  their  meaning. 

Glass.  Philol.  Sacr.  1.  2.  p.  2.  s.  2. 

414.  Even  in  the  historical  books,  where  it  seems 
least  necessary,  such  knowledge  as  we  may  obtain 
of  the  design  in  writing  them,  will  account  for  the  selec- 
tion of  materials,  and  for  adopting  particular  modes  of 
expression. 


120  SCOPE  OP  BOOKS. 

Genesis,  not  intended  for  a  general  history  of  all  nations; 
but  selects  such  facts  as  tended  to  enforce  the  worship  of 
the  true  God,  to  excite  the  Israelites  to  the  observance 
of  their  religious  laws,  to  trace  their  descent  from  Abraham, 
to  insinuate  instructions  by  example,  to  alienate  them 
from  the  religions  of  their  neighbours. 

Cleric.  Prol.  Diss.  3.  §  2.     Warburton,  Div.  Leg.  b.  6. 
s.  2. 

Gospels,  not  a  complete  history  of  the  life  of  Christ ;  hence 
things  are  omitted  in  one  which  are  related  in  another, 
and  some  things  omitted  in  them  all,  John  xx.  SO.  But 
as  many  are  recorded  as  are  necessary  for  our  faith  in  his 
mission,  and  knowledge  of  his  doctrine. 

Acts,  not  intended  for  a  history  of  the  apostles;  mentions 
the  preaching  almost  only  of  Peter  and  Paul.  Not  for 
a  complete  history  even  of  these.  Peter  is  dropt  after 
the  conversion  of  Cornelius;  Paul  at  his  going  to  Rome 
It  is  intended  only  for  an  account  of  the  promulgation  of 
Christianity,  1.  among  the  Jews,  2.  to  the  devout  Gentiles, 
both  by  Peter;  3.  To  the  idolatrous  Gentiles,  by  Paul. 
It  is  carried  no  farther  than  this  purpose  required ^ 

Benson,  Hist,  of  Christ. 

415.  Some  of  the  poetical  books  are  one  whole, 
having  a  general  scope  and  design ;  which,  when  it 
can  be  discovered,  throws  great  light  upon  them. 

416.  Other  poetical  books  are  a  collection  of  seve- 
ral distinct  and  independent  pieces,  having  some  anal- 
ogy in  their  subjects  and  designs,  though  not  strict 
enough  to  unite  them  into  one  determinate  scope ; 
but  each  of  them  has  its  own  particular  scope,  atten- 
tion to  which  will  contribute  both  to  our  perceiving 
their  beauties,  and  to  our  entering  into  their  meaning. 


SCOPE  OF  BOOKS.  121 

Psalnis,  a  collection  of  hymns,  unconnected,  not  arranged  in 
any  order,  according  to  their  authors,  times,  or  subjects. 
But  each  hymn  has  generally  one  subject,  and  one  scope. 

417.  Some  of  the  prophetical  books  have  one  simple 
subject  and  scope,  which  is  easily  discoverable. 

Jonah,  a  simple  history  of  his  mission  to  prophesy  against 
Nineveh ;  of  his  misbehaviour  in  relation  to  it ;  and  of 
his  being  reproved  on  that  account, 

Nahum,  one  entire,  regular  poem,  foretelling  the  destruction 
of  Nineveh. 

Lowth,  Sacr.  Poes.  preel.  21. 

Habakkuk.  The  prophetical  part  is  a  prediction  of  the 
captivity  of  Judah,  of  their  returjj  from  it,  and  of  the  de- 
struction of  the  Chaldeans. 

Obadiah.  One  prediction  of  the  destruction  of  the  Edo- 
mites  by  Judah,  in  return  for  their  violence  against  it. 

418.  But  most  of  the  prophetical  books  are  collec- 
tions of  many  separate  predictions,  at  different  times, 
and  on  different  subjects,  interspersed  w^ith  narrations, 
reproofs,  exhortations,  and  devotions ;  it  cannot,  there- 
fore, be  supposed,  that  the  whole  should  terminate  in 
any  one  common  design ;  and  the  immediate  scope  of 
each  prediction  is  not  generally  different  from  its  mean- 
ing, or  the  events  foretold ;  but  special  views  in  fore- 
telling them,  or  reasons  for  it,  may  sometimes  be  dis- 
covered, and  considered  as  the  ultimate  scope  of  the 
prediction. 

419.  It  is  peculiarly  of  importance  to  attend  to  the 
general  scope  and  design  in  the  argumentative  parts  of 
Scripture ;  which  are,  chiefly,  the  epistles,  particularly 
those  of  Paul. 

Locke's  Essay  on  Epistles. 
10 


122  SCOPE  OF  BOOKS. 

420.  There  is  one  general  difference  observable  be- 
tween the  scope  of  the  epistles  and  that  of  the  gospels  ; 
that  the  latter  represent  the  principles  of  Christianity 
absolutely,  or  as  they  are  in  themselves  ;  the  former  re- 
latively, as  respecting  the  state  of  the  vs^orld  at  that  par- 
ticular time. 

Taylor's  Pref.  to  Rom.  §  28. 

421.  In  the  epistles,  it  is  proper  to  suppose  one  gen- 
eral scope  and  design,  till  it  be  found  necessary,  from 
the  strain  of  it,  to  admit  a  plurality  of  independent 
views ;  and,  in  many  of  them,  there  really  is  one  main 
design,  suitable  to  the  occasions  of  them,  to  which  all 
their  parts  are  subordinate. 

Locke,  ib. 
1  Thess.     To  persuade  to  stedfastness  in  the  faith  and  prac- 
tice of  Christianity,  which  they  had  but  lately  embraced. 
Galat.     To  prove  the  immunity  of  Gentile  Christians  from 
the  Jewish  ceremonial. 

422.  The  design  of  an  epistle  is  the  great  key  to 
the  whole  of  it.  Till  it  is  discovered,  all  must  appear 
involved  in  obscurity  and  confusion.  When  it  is  fully 
ascertained,  all  becomes  regular,  distinct,  and  clear. 

Locke,  ib. 

423.  A  just  conception  of  the  scope  of  an  epistle, 
contributes  greatly  to  our  discovering  the  plan  and 
distribution  of  the  whole,  the  tendency  of  the  several 
members,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  arguments  are 
conducted ;  and  shows  them  all  uniting  in  one  point. 

Locke,  ib. 

424.  Knowledge  of  the  general  scope  of  an  epistle, 
is.  often  the  best  or  the  only  means  of  fixing  the  sense 


PLAN  OF  BOOKS.  123 

of  particular  expressions  used  in  it ;  not  only  of  the 
leading  expressions  which  run  through  it,  but  even  of 
the  more  incidental  ones,  which  are  sometimes  selected 
with  a  plain  view  to  promote  it. 
Locke,  ib' 


SECT.  VI. 

Of  the  Pla7i  and  Distribution  of  the  Books  of  Scripture, 

425.  Every  book,  even  that  which  has  the  greatest 
simplicity  of  design,  has  distinct  parts ;  the  number, 
tendency,  order,  and  arrangement  of  which,  form  it# 
plan  and  distribution. 

426.  The  books  of  Scripture  being  of  very  different 
kinds,  the  plans  of  them  must  be  very  dissimilar ;  and, 
even  books  of  the  same  kind  differ  considerably,  in  the 
plans  on  which  they  are  constructed. 

427.  In  the  most  of  the  historical  books,  there  is  no 
other  plan  pursued,  but  a  narration  of  certain  events, 
suiting  the  intention  of  the  book,  and  belonging  to  the 
period  which  it  takes  in  ;  generally,  in  the  order  nearly 
of  time  ;  and  the  distribution  of  them  is  sufficiently  ap- 
prehended, when  the  different  events  are  distinguished. 

Genesis.  A  history — of  the  creation — the  antediluvian  world 
— the  deluge — the  repeopling  of  the  earth  from  Noah 
— the  dispersion  of  mankind — the  calling  of  Abraham — 
the  patriarchs,  till  the  death  of  Joseph. 

Exodus.  A  history — of  the  state  of  the  Israelites  after  Jo- 
seph's death — the  birth  and  youth  of  Moses — their  deliv- 


124  PLAN  OF  BOOKS. 

erance  from  Egypt — their  first  year's  journey  in  the  wil- 
derness—with a  particular  account  of  the  laws  promul- 
gated during  that  period. 

Leviticus.  Almost  wholly  an  account  of  particular  laws  giv- 
en by  God — and  a  few  remarkable. events  connected  with 
them. 

Numbers.  A  history  of  the  remarkable  events  from  the 
beginning  of  the  second  to  the  end  of  the  thirty-ninth  year 
of  their  journey — witii  an  account  of  several  laws  given 
them. 

428.  Some  of  the  historical  books  observe  a  more 
artificial  distribution  ;  arranging  the  facts  recorded  un- 
der distinct  heads. 

Deuteronomy  contains  seven  parts ;  the  four  first  digested 
into  as  many  speeches  of  Moses,  delivered  at  the  times, 
and  on  the  occasions  there  related.  1.  A  summary  of 
their  history  in  the  wilderness,  to  ch.  iv.  40.  2.  A  sum- 
mary of  the  laws  given  them,  to  end  of  ch.  xxvi.  3.  Direc- 
tions what  to  do  after  passing  Jordan,  ch.xxvii.xxviii.  4.  An 
exhortation  to  obedience,  ch.  xxix.  xxx.  5.  An  account 
of  events  posterior  to  his  making  these  speeches,  particu- 
larly his  song,  ch.  xxxi.  xxxii.  6.  His  benediction  of  the 
people,  ch.  xxxiii.  7.  An  account  of  his  death,  ch.  xxxiv. 
Ken.  Diss.  £.  c.  1.  p.  91. 

429.  Such  of  the  poetical  books  as  have  one  design, 
have  likewise  a  plan  suited  to  it ;  in  which  there  is 
generally  great  regularity  and  beauty,  and  which  throws 
light  both  on  the  several  parts,  and  on  many  particular 
expressions. 

430.  Such  poetical  books  as  contain  a  collection  of 
separate  and  independent  compositions,  which  have  no 
common  design,  arrange  not  these  on  any  regular  plan. 


PLAN  OF  BOOKS.  125 

The  psalms  are  placed,  neither  according  to  their  authors, 
dates,  nor  subjects ;  but,  as  they  happened  to  come  to  the 
hand  of  the  collector. 

431.  But  each  separate  composition,  when  of  any 
length,  has  its  own  plan  and  disposition ;  and  in  this, 
there  is  considerable  variety. 

432.  Some  of  the  scriptural  poems  are  disposed  in 
an  alphabetical  order,  consisting  of  twenty -two  lines, 
stanzas,  or  periods,  according  to  the  number  of  the 
Hebrew  letters ;  each  line  or  period  coinciding  in  its 
pause  with  that  of  the  sense. 

Psal.  cxi.  cxii.  divided  intp  22  lines,  beginning  with  the  let- 
ters in  their  order,  and  making  10  stanzas. 

Lam.  iii.  into  22  stanzas  or  periods,  each  of  three  lines; 
both  the  stanzas  and  the  lines  beginning  with  the  letters 
in  their  order. 

Psal.  XXV.  xxxiv.  cxlv.  Prov.  xxxi.  10 — 31.  Lam.  iv.  into 
22  stanzas,  each  of  two  lines,  but  only  the  stanzas  begin- 
ning with  the  letters  in  their  order. 

Psal.  cxix.  into  22  periods,  each  consisting  of  eight  stanzas, 
beginning  with  the  same  letter  as  the  period,  and  each 
stanza  of  two  lines,  but  the  second  line  not  so  beginning:. 

Lam.  i.  ii.  into  22  stanzas,  of  three  lines  each,  the  stanzas 
only  alphabetical. 

Psal.  xxxvii.  into  22  stanzas,  of  four  lines  each,  the  stanzas 
only  alphabetical. 

Lowth,  Prelim.  Diss.  p.  4,  5,  6. 

433.  In  poems  thus  disposed,  a  very  strict  connex- 
ion cannot  be  expected,  though,  in  most  of  them,  it  is 
far  from  being  neglected  ;  but  the  main  intention  has 
been  to  assist  the  memory  in  retaining  the  detached 
aphorisms,  of  which  such  poems  consist. 

Lowth,  ib.  p.  5. 


126  PLAN  OF  BOOKS. 

434.  This  disposition  sometimes  points  out  false 
readings,  which  have  crept  into  the  text;  for,  when 
it  is  clear,  from  the  whole  structure  of  a  poem,  that 
such  disposition  was  intended,  it  is  reasonable  to  as- 
cribe to  the  mistakes  of  transcribers,  the  irregularities 
which  now  occur;  and  it  sometimes,  likewise,  sug- 
gests the  true  reading,  or  gives  confirmation  to  it  when 
otherwise  suggested. 

In  Psal.  XXV.  there  is  no  stanza  beginning  with  1,  the  sixth 
letter  ;  but  v.  5.  has  three  lines,  irregular  ;  the  last  begin- 
ning with  ^niK,  probably  for  "jn^^i,  which  is  regular  in  three 
MSS. ;  the  second  line  wanting,  but  transposed,  to  v.  7. 
which  has  three  lines;  the  last  tautological  there,  but 
proper  for  v.  6.  which  will  stand  thus,  "  And  on  thee  do  I 
wait  all  the  day.  For  thy  goodness  sake,  O  Jehovah." 
Ver.  18.  should  begin  with  p,  but  begins  with  nxn,  the  same 
word  as  v.  19.  whence  it  has  probably  been  taken  by  trans- 
cribers. 

Yer.  22.  probably  an  addition  ;  the  alphabet  complete  *vith- 
out  it;  it  begins,  as  well  as  v.  16.  with  5,  and  is  not  con- 
nected with  the  subject  of  the  Psalm. 
Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  84,  14,  165. 

Psal.  xxxiv.  V.  6.  beginning  with  1,  is  wanting,  v.  22.  begins, 
as  v.  16.  with  3,  and  is  superfluous  ;  perhaps  it  had  1  pre- 
fixed, and  was  transposed  from  v.  6. 

Ken.  ib. 

Psal.  cxlv.  v.  14.  beginning  with  i  is  wanting.  But  70.  Syr. 
Vulg.  Arab,  have  a  distich  proper  here,  "Jehovah  is 
faithful  in  all  his  words,  and  holy  in  all  his  works."  One 
Hebrev/  MS.  has,  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  a  distich  answer- 
ing to  this  version,  and  beginning  with  |DN3,  doubtless 
genuine. 

Ken.  in  loc.  Diss.  Gen.  §  48,  80,  82,  84,  14.  cod.  142. 

Lam.  ii.  v.  16.  and  17.  are  transposed,  3  being  put  before  y, 
but  right  in  four  MSS.  Syr.     Ch.  iii.  v.  46,  47,  48,  begin- 


PLAN  OF  BOOKS.  127 

ning  with  3,  are  put  before  v.  49,  50,  51,  beginning  with  jr 
but  right  in  2  MSS.  Syr.     Ch.  iv.  v.  16,  17,  transposed  in 
like  manner ;  right  in  live  MSS.  Syr. 
Ken.  in  loc.  Diss.  Gen.  §  23,  165,  p.  83.  n. 

435.  The  alphabetical  poems,  by  shewing  the  pre- 
cise extent  of  each  line  and  stanza,  give  great  light  for 
discovering  the  form  and  structure  of  the  poetry  in 
them,  and,  by  this  means,  supply  general  principles 
concerning  that  form  in  such  poems  as  are  not  alpha- 
betical ;  that  it  is  regulated  by  some  fixed  measure,  or 
cadence ;  that  it  consists  not  of  rhyme ;  that  there  is 
some  parallelism  in  the  corresponding  lines ;  and  that 
they  are  reducible  to  two  species,  distinguished  by 
their  length. 

Lowth,  Prel.  Diss.  p.  4 — 34.     Herder's  Dialog,  on  Hebrew 
Poetry. 

436.  Some  of  the  Scriptural   poems  are  regularly 
disposed  into  parts,  either  by  the  introduction  of  differ- 
ent persons,^  or,  by  an  alternate  rehearsal  of  them,^ 
or,  by  the  repetition  of  a  chorus  or  burden  at  the  end 
of  each  member,^  all  productive  of  beauty. 

^  Psal.  ii.     The  speakers  are,  1.  the  Psalmist,  v.  1 — 5.     2.  Je- 
hovah, V.  6.    3.  Messiah,  v,  7,  8,  9.    4.  Psalmist,  v.  10,  11, 
12.  dramatic. 
Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  165. 

2  Psal  xxiv.  (N<>  407.) 

Psal.  XX.  sung  alternately ;  the  first  five  verses  by  the  peo- 
ple ;  v.  6.  by  David  ;  v.  7,  8,  9.  by  the  people- 
Pearce,  Serm.  on  v.  7. 

3  Psal.  xlii.  xliii.  consists  of  three  parts,  with  a  chorus  subjoined 

to  each. 
Psal.  Ixxx.  consists  of  three  unequal  parts,  each  concluding 
with  the  same  chorus,  v.  3,  7,  19.    "Turn  us  again,  (*0 
God,'  V.  3.     *0  God  of  hosts,'  v.  7.    '0  Jehovah,  God 


128  PLAN  OF  BOOKS. 

of  hosts,'  V.  19.  either  tlesignedlj,  or  by  mistake  of  trans- 
cribers), cause  thy  face  to  shine,  and  we  shall  be  saved." 
Psal.  cvii.  consists  of  five  parts ;  all,  except  the  last,  con- 
cluding with  this  chorus,  "  O  that  men  would  praise  the 
Lord,"  &c.  with  different  reasons,  suitable  to  the  sense  of 
the  preceding  part. 

437.  Most  of  the  Scriptural  poems  are  disposed 
simply  according  to  the  different  subjects,^  or  the  parts 
of  the  one  subject,^  of  which  they  treat ;  sometimes 
clearly  distinguished  from  one  another  ;  oftener  sliding 
easily  into  one  another,  or  naturally  interwoven,  so  as 
not  to  admit  an  accurate  analysis;  but  always  with 
great  poetical  beauty. 

1  Psal.  xix.  celebrates,  1.  the  works  of  God,  v.  1 — 6.  2.  His 
law,  V.  7 — 1 1.  the  distinction  being  precisely  marked  ;  and 
concludes  with  devotions  naturally  suggested  by  the  latter. 

^  Psal.  xxii.  describes  the  Messiah,  1.  as  suffering,  v.  1 — 21. 
2.  as  triumphant,  v.  22 — 31.  sufficiently  distinguished, 
but  with  an  easy  transition. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  165. 

438.  Of  such  prophetical  books  as  contain  many 
predictions,  the  natural  distribution  is  into  these  seve- 
ral predictions.  Where  the  distinction  of  them,  and 
the  termination  of  each,  is  not  clearly  marked,  it  occa- 
sions difficulties,  which  will  be  considered  afterwards ; 
where  it  is  precisely  marked,  as  it  often  is,  it  throws 
great  light  on  the  prediction. 

Amos.  There  is  a  clear  distinction  of  his  several  predictions 
concerning — Syria,  i.  3 — 5. ;  the  Philistines,  v.  6 — 8. ;  Tyre 
V.  9,  10. ;  Edom,  v.  11,12.;  Ammon,  v.  13 — 15.;  Moab, 
ii.  1 — 3. ;  and  Judah.  v.  4,  5.  In  the  rest  of  the  book,  which 
relates  whoUv  to  Israel,  there  is  not  so  clear  a  distinction. 


PLAN  OF  BOOKS.  129 

Isaiah.  The  predictions  in  the  first  39  chapters  are  clearly 
distinguished,  and  hence  derive  light.  Those  in  the  following 
chapters  want  this  advantage.  But  he  is  remarkable  for  a 
just  distribution  of  the  parts,  and  a  natural  order  in  treating 
them. 
Lowth,  Sacr.  Poes.  prsel.  21. 
Joel.  The  distribution  and  order  are  plain.  1.  The  desolation 
of  the  country  by  locusts,  to  ch.  ii.  27.  2.  The  effusion  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  v.  28 — 32.  3.  Judgments  against  different 
nations. 

Lowth,  ib.     Chandler.  Pref.  to  Joel.    Dupin. 
Jeremiah.   Three  parts.  1 .  Various  predictions, distinctly  mark- 
ed, to  the  end  of  ch.  xxxv.     2.  Mostly  historical,  to  end  of  ch. 
xlv.    3.  Many  predictions,  likewise  distinctly  marked,  to  end 
of  ch.  li.     The  last  chapter  is  not  his. 
Lowth,  ib. 
Daniel.    Two  parts.     1.  Historical,  first  6  chapters.      2,  His 
predictions,  in  distinct  visions,  to  end. 
Dupin. 
Ezekiel.      Twenty -two  predictions,  in  the  order  in  which  they 
were  delivered,  obviously  distinct,  and  each  prosecuted  with 
closeness. 

Lowth,  ib.     Dupin. 

439.  Such  prophetical  books  as  have  one  simple 
subject,  and  such  separate  predictions  as  are  in  any 
degree  complex,  describe  the  events  belonging  to  that 
subject ;  sometimes  according  to  the  order  of  their  suc- 
cession, which  contributes  to  perspicuity ;  and  some- 
times according  to  some  connexion  in  their  nature ; 
but  often  in  union  with  a  poetical  arrangement,  proper, 
beautiful,  and  striking. 

Nahum.     1.  The  exordium,  august  and  magnificent.     2.  The 
preparation  for  the  destruction  of  Nineveh.    3.  The  destruc- 
17 


130  PLAN  OF  BOOKS. 

tion  itself;    both  described  with  the  greatest  sublimity  and 
force. 

Lowth,  ib. 
Christ's  prediction  against  Jerusalem,  describes  the  several 
events  in  the  order  of  time  ;    therefore  clear,  and  easily  as- 
certained. 

440.  The  argumentative  parts  of  Scripture  are  most 
of  the  epistles,  particularly  Paul's  ,*  and,  in  the  most 
general  view,  the  plan  of  all  of  them  is  obvious,  and 
very  uniform  ;  each  of  them,  besides  an  introduction 
and  a  conclusion,  consisting  of  two  parts,  the  doctrinal 
and  the  practical. 

441.  The  former  is  the  main  part ;  it  is  it  that  is 
properly  argumentative  ;  and  it  is  in  it  that  an  investi- 
gation of  the  plan  and  distribution  is  both  most  neces- 
sary and  most  difficult. 

442.  When  an  epistle  has  two  or  more  independent 
designs,  these  form  its  plan ;  which  is  investigated,  by 
ascertaining  what  these  distinct  subjects  are,  where  one 
of  them  is  concluded,  and  another  begun,  and  what 
parts  of  the  book  relate  to  each  of  them. 

Locke,  ib. 

1  Corinthians.  Introduction,  ch.  i.  1 — 9.  Conclusion,  ch.  xvi. 
Body  of  the  epistle  has  two  subjects,  1.  to  reclaim  them 
from  a  false  teacher,  who  had  led  them  into  several  faults,  to 
end  of  ch.  vi.  2.  To  answer  their  questions,  and  correct 
abuses  and  errors  among  them,  ch.  vii — xv. 

443.  When  an  epistle  has  one  principal  design,  the 
natural  distribution  of  it  is,  into  the  several  steps  or 
arguments  employed  for  promoting  it ;  which,  being 
subordinate  to  it,  ought  all  to  be  considered  in   the 


CONNEXION  OF  THE  PARTS.  131 

relation  which  they  bear  to  it,  and  explained  in  that 
sense  which  suits  it ;    a  principle  which  is  applicable, 
likewise,  to  each  part  of  such  epistles  as  have  more 
than  one  design. 
Locke,  ib. 

444.  A  discovery  of  the  real  plan  and  distribution 
of  an  epistle,  or  argumentative  piece,  will  throw  great 
light  on  the  force,  the  import,  and  the  conduct  of  the 
several  arguments,  and  on  the  meaning  of  many  par- 
ticular expressions. 

445.  But,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  affect  too  great 
nicety  and  precision  in  distinguishing  and  separating 
the  several  members  of  an  epistle  ;  for,  as  the  apostles 
did  not  study  an  artificial  method,  this  would  break  the 
connexion  of  their  discourse,  misrepresent  their  argu- 
ments, and  pervert  the  meaning  of  their  words. 


SECT.  VII. 

Of  the  Connexion  of  the  Parts  in  the  Books  oj 
Scripture. 

44*6  Every  member,  in  the  general  plan  of  a  book, 
consists  of  parts,  which  have  a  certain  connexion  with 
one  another ;  and  often,  each  of  these  subordinate 
parts  consists  of  different  sentences,  or  propositions, 
which  have,  likewise,  a  connexion ;  and,  the  discovery 
of  such  connexion  is  of  great  importance,  for  ascertain- 
ing both  the  true  reading,  and  the  sense. 


132  CONNEXION  OF  TBE  PAlflTS. 

447.  Among  various  readings  found  in  copies,  that 
which  suits  the  connexion  should  be  preferred  to  such 
as  do  not  suit  it,  though  these  be,  in  other  respects, 
better  supported. 

Mark  i.  2.  Ev  }i<rui«,  rw  7rpo<pviryi,  most  MSS.  Vulg.  Syr.  Pers. 
Arm.   Copt.    Goth.   Porphyr.    Orig.    A  than.   Jerome.      But 
cv  To/$  7rpo<pi)rcitg,  in  Alex,  and  several  other  MSS.  Iren.  com- 
mon editions,  preferable  from  the  connexion. 
Mill  in  loc.  and  proleg.  No.  412,  702,  1019. 

Mat.v.  47.   "  If  ye  salute"  m^  (pi>^iii,  most  MSS.  Arm.  Goth. 
But  uS'eXcpni,  in  Camb.  MS.  Vulg.  Copt.     Yet  preferable, 
otherwise  synonymous  with  v.  46. 
Mill  and  Kuster.  in  loc. 

Mark  xi.  10  'H  epx^f^^^i)  l^ecTiXetoc  EN  ONOMATI  KYPIOY,  ra 
%-ecTpeg,  &c.  Alex.  and  many  other  MSS.  but  perplex  the 
sense — wanting  in  7  MSS.  Vulg.  Syr.  Arm.  Copt.  Arab. 
Pers.  and  in  the  quotation  of  Orig.  right;  the  clause  has  been 
taken  in  from  v.  9. 

Mill  in  loc.  and  proleg.  No.  1246. 

448.  The  sense  and  connexion  are,  sometimes,  alone 
sufficient  to  shew  that  there  is  a  corruption,  and  like- 
wise to  suggest  the  proper  correction  of  it. 

Houbig.  Prol.  c.  3.  a.  4. 

2  Sam.  xxiii.  13.  "  Thirty  of  the  thirty  went  to  David."  So 
all  editions,  except  Complut.  palpably  wrong.  Three,  v.  16, 
17.  CD-iyW  for  mj?*?!?,  Compl.  Keri.  above  20  MSS.  all  Vers. 
1  Chron.  xi.  15. 

Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  1.  p.  145. 

449.  But  one  reading  ought  not  to  be  preferred  to 
another  far  better  supported,  much  less  to  be  adopted 
without  any  positive  authority,  except  the  sense  and 
connexion  render  it  absolutely  necessary,  as  the  only 


CONNEXION  OF  THE  PARTS.  133 

means  of  removing,  not  merely  a  difficulty,  but  an  ab- 
surdity or  falsehood. 

Houbig.  ib.     Michael.  §  18. 

450.  Nay,  a  reading  may  sometimes  deserve  to  be 
preferred,  on  account  of  its  leaving  the  connexion  some- 
w^hat  obscure,  or  not  immediately  obvious  ;  for  it  may 
have  been,  for  that  very  reason,  changed  by  trans- 
cribers. 

Michael,  ib. 

461.  The  more  independent  copies  there  are  of  any 
book,  the  less  liberty  is  allowable  in  making  correc- 
tions, merely  because  the  sense  and  connexion  seem  to 
require  them  ;  for  the  less  probability  there  is  that  an 
error  should  have  crept  into  all  the  copies. 

Michael.  §  31. 

452.  Emendations  suggested  by  the  sense  and  con- 
nexion, but  not  supported  by  any  MS.  or  version,  ought 
not  to  be  inserted  into  the  text ;  but  only  marked  in 
the  margin,  or  in  notes. 

Houbig.  ib. 

453.  The  connexion  is  of  so  great  importance  for 
the  interpretation  of  scripture,  that  its  true  sense  can 
be  apprehended  only  by  explaining  every  sentence  and 
expression  according  to  the  place  in  which  it  stands, 
and  the  relation  which  it  bears  to  what  precedes,  and 
what  follows. 

454.  General  ferms  being  often  used  only  in  a  part 
of  their  extension,  it  is  the  connexion  that  shews  to 
what  part  of  it  they  ought  to  be  limited. 


134         CONNEXION  or  THE  PARTS. 

Heb.  xi.  6.  "  Without  faith  it  is  impossible  to  please  God." 
Not  saving  or  Christian  faith.  The  expression  is  limited  by 
the  next  words  ;  "  that  he  is,  and  that  he  is  a  re  warder  of 
them  that  diligently  seek  him." 

455.  In  like  manner,  ambiguous  expressions  must 
be  restricted,  among  their  several  significations,  to  that 
one  which  suits  the  connexion. 

Mat.  xxiii.  23.  "Judgment,  mercy,  and/aif/i;"  not  "belief 
of  any  kind,"  but  "  fidelity." 

Rom.  xiv.  23.  Whatsoever  is  not  of  faith,  is  sin" — not  "justify- 
ing faith" — not  "a  warrant  from  Scripture;"  but  "a  full 
persuasion  of  its  lawfulness."  This  is  the  natural  meaning 
of  x/c-T/5 ;  and,  though  not  frequent  in  Scripture,  is  the  only 
sense  of  it  through  this  chapter,  and  alone  can  suit  the  ar- 
gument. 

Taylor.     Locke.    Macknight.    Critic,  in  loc.     Sander- 
son's Serm. 

Rom.  i.  28.  Ahycty^o^,  "  unsearching,"  referring  to  ehx,ifA.e6Tctv 
just  before,  "try  or  search."  So  Tit,  i.  16.  But  2  Cor.  xiii. 
5,  6,  7.  "  destitute  of  proof,"  referring  to  ^oKif*.}}  "  a  proof," 
V.  3.  And  1  Cor.  ix.  27.  2  Tim.  iii.  8.  Heb.  vi.  8.  "disap- 
proved, rejected." 

Locke  and  Macknight  in  loc.    Pearce  on  1  Cor. 

456.  Every  term  should  be  considered  as  it  stands 
in  the  proposition  of  which  it  makes  a  part,  and  ex- 
plained, not  by  itself,  but  so  as  to  bring  out  the  real 
sense  of  that  whole  proposition. 

Mat.  vii.  24.  "  Whosoever  heareth  these  sayings,  and  doth 
them,  (subject)  I  will  liken  him  to  a  wise  man  which  built 
his  house  upon  a  rock,"  (predicate.)  The  sense  is  plain,  "he 
who  practises  as  well  as  hears,  builds  J)is  hope  of  salvation 
on  a  sure  foundation."  But  an  Antinomian  wrests  it  thus  : 
«  The  subject  of  the  comparison  is,  *  whosoever  cometh  to 
Christ  by  faith  being  given  him  of  the  Father'  (supposed 


CONNEXION  OF  THE  PARTS.  135 

without  ground :)  Such  an  one  hears  his  words,  not  only 
externally;  but  internally  ;  and  he  doth  them,  exercises  faith 
on  Christ,  his  grace  and  righteousness  held  forth  in  them, 
and  performs  all  duties  without  any  view  to  obtain  eternal 
life  thereby,  which  he  expects  only  from  Christ,  as  his  say- 
ings direct  him.  Every  such  believer  builds  the  salvation  of 
his  soul,  he  digs  deep,  till  he  come  to  a  good  foundation,  a 
rock,  Christ,  the  rock  of  ages,  and  he  lays  the  whole  stress  of 
his  salvation  c^  him."  Gill  in  loc. — Here,  plain  expressions 
are  explained  by  metaphorical ;  a  meaning  is  put  on  a  word 
inconsistent  with  its  place  in  the  sentence ;  the  sentence  de- 
stroyed; being  all  turned  into  a  predicate  for  a  subject  gra- 
tuitously supposed  ;  the  real  meaning  explained  away,  turned 
into  an  insignificant  assertion,  "*  that  he  who  expects  salva- 
tion only  from  Christ,  lays  the  whole  stress  of  his  salvation 
upon  him,'  or,  *he  who  believes  on  Christ,  believes  on 
Christ.' 

457.  In  a  piece  of  reasoning,  every  proposition 
must  be  considered  in  its  connexion  with  the  whole 
argument ;  if  it  be  a  principle,  or  medium  of  proof, 
in  relation  to  the  point  intended  to  be  proved ;  if  an 
inference,  in  relation  to  the  premises  whence  it  is  de- 
duced ;  if  only  an  illustration,  in  reference  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  brought. 

458.  In  an  argument,  the  context  sometimes  sug- 
gest a  step  which  has  been  left  to  be  understood,  in 
pursuing  it. 

459.  In  a  narration,  the  connexion  and  series  will 
sometimes  suggest  circumstances  necessary  for  com- 
pleting it,  which  have  been  omitted  in  their  place. 

Cleric.  Ars  Critic,  p.  3.  s.  3.  c.  5.  and  Dissert  in  Harm.  Evang. 
2.  can.  4,  5,  6. 


136  COMPARISON  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


CHAP.  VI. 


Comparison  of  Scripture  with  itself, 

• 

460.  Comparison  of  Scripture  with  itself,  or  ex- 
plaining and  illustrating  one  passage  by  another,  is  an 
important  source  of  criticism,  the  legitimacy  and  force 
of  which  depend  on  this  principle.  That  the  whole  of 
Scripture  was  intended  to  be,  and  as  inspired,  must 
really  be,  consistent. 

461.  Comparison  of  Scripture  with  itself  is — either 
Particular,  of  one  passage  with  another  passage — or 
General,  of  a  passage  with  the  analogy  of  faith. 

Glass,  Philol.  1.  2.  p   2.  s.  2. 

462.  The  particular  comparison  of  Scripture  with 
itself,  is  of  very  great  utility  ;  and  it  is,  either  of  paral- 
lel passages,  or  of  passages  not  parallel. 


SECT.  I. 


Comparison  of  Parallel  Passages. 

463.  Passages  may  be  parallel  to  one  another  in 
several  different  ways  ;  suitably  to  which,  their  uses  in 
criticism  will  be  likewise  different. 


PARALLEL   PASSAGES.  137 

464.  First,  passages  are,  in  the  strictest  sense,  pa- 
rallel, in  which,  either  with  or  without  a  quotation, 
the  same  thing  is  said  in  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same, 
words ;  and  if,  in  these,  the  agreement  be  perfect, 
they  shew  the  integrity,  but  cannot  contribute  much  to 
the  illustration  of  each  other ;  but  there  is  seldom  or 
ever  such  perfect  agreement;  and,  therefore,  passages 
of  this  kind  generally  throw  some  light  on  one  an- 
other. 

Glass,  Philol.  Sacr.  ib. 

Exod.  XX.  2 — ]7.  parallel  to  Deut.  v.  6 — 18. 

Psal.  xviii.  to  2  Sam  xxii.     Psal.  xiv.  to  Psal.  liii. 

Psal  xcvi.  to  1  Chron.  xvi.  23,  &c. 

Psal-  cv.  1—15.  to  1  Chron.  xvi.  8—22. 

Psal.  cviii.  1—5.  to  Psal.  Ivii.  7—11.  v.  6—13.  to  Psal.  Ix. 

5—12.  i 

Psal.  cxv.  4 — 11.  to  Psal.  cxxxv.  15 — 20. 
Psal.  Ixxix.  6.  to  Jer.  x.  25.     Isa.  ii.  2 — 4.  to  Mic.  iv.  1 — 3. 
Psal.  xxxi.  1—3.  to  Psal.  Ixxi.  1 — 3. 

465.  One  such  passage  often  serves  for  correcting  a 
false  reading  in  another. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  passim.  Diss.  2.  passim.  Diss.  Gen.  §  100,  133, 
140,  165. 

In  Psal.  xviii.  and  2  Sam.  xxii.  as  printed,  there  are  near  130 
variations.  These  are  not  original,  for  many  of  them  are 
plain  corruptions,  and  many  are  removed  by  the  authority  of 
MSS.  All  may  be  corrected  by  comparing  the  passages ; 
e.  g.  Sam.  v.  11.  i«*^'l  "  »ind  he  was  seen  upon  the  wings  of 
the  wind"— flat,  wrong.  Psal.  i^T),  «  He  did  /y"— right, 
context  11  MSS.  of  Sam.  v.  12.  Sam.  «  He  made  dark- 
ness   pavilions  round  about  him" — defective  in  metre. 

Psal.  «  darkness  his  secret  place,  (nno)  his  pavilion  dark 
waters,"  &c.      2  MSS.  of  Sam.  v.  13.   Sam.     "Through 

the  brightness  that  was  before  him" defective  in 

18 


138  PARALLEL    PASSAGES. 

metre.  Psal.  supplies  *-his  thick  clouds  passed."  right. 
It  follows,  'Sn:i  1^2  **  hailstones  and  coals  of  fire,"  abrupt. 
Sam.  ^hm  n;?3  "thej  were  kindled  into  coals  of  fire," 
right.  V.  14.  Psal.  irregular,  3  hemistichs ;  the  last,  "hail- 
stones and  coals  of  fire,"  improper;  wanting  in  4  MSS. 
70.  Ital.  and  in  Sam.  they  have  been  taken  from  the  pre- 
ceding verse. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.   464.  &c.      Diss    2.  p.  564,  &c.  et  in  loc. 
Diss.  Gen.  §  113,  118,  140,  179. 
Psal.  cv.  1 — 15.  differs  from  1   Chron.  xvi.  8—22  in  so  very 
few  places,  that  these  differences  seem  to  have  arisen  from 
corruptions.     Psal.  v.  5.  VD,  "  his  mouth,"  irregular,     in'3  in 
above  30  MSS.    Chron.  v.  12,  and  in  all  copies.     Psal  v.  6. 
«  Ye  seed  of  Mraham  ,-"  but,  in  10  MSS.  "  Israel."     Chron. 
V.  13.  "  Israel,"  but,  in  2  MSS   "Abraham."  Psal.  v.  8  iDT. 
"  He  hath  remembered,"  right,  connexion.      Chron    v.  15. 
nDi,  "  Remember  ye."     So  3  MSS.   of  Psal.     Psal.  v   12, 
anvnD,  "when   they   were."    connexion.      Chron.   v.   19. 
CDDnvnD,  "  when  ije  were."     So  25  MSS.  of  Psal. 
Ken.  in  loc. 

466.  If,  in  such  parallel  passages,  the  sense  be 
manifestly  contradictory,  we  are  sure  that  one  of  them 
has  been  corrupted ;  and  should  endeavour  to  discover 
which  it  is,  and  to  correct  it,  either  from  the  parallel 
place,  or  by  any  other  means  in  our  power. 

467.  But  when,  in  two  such  passages,  the  sense  is 
the  same,  though  the  words  be  different,  we  must  be 
very  cautious  in  supposing  a  false  reading  in  either  ; 
for  in  many  cases,  it  is  evident,  that  the  sacred  writers 
meant  not  to  confine  themselves  to  the  same  words,  but 
only  to  express  the  same  sense  ;  and,  by  not  observ- 
ing this  rule,  transcribers  and  critics  have  been  led 
into  many  mistakes. 


PARALLEL  PASSAGES.  139 

Cleric.  Harm.  Evang.  Diss.  2.  c.  2.      Mackiiight,   Obs.  1.  Mi- 
chael. §  15. 

Psal.  cxv.  4 — 1 1.     Psal.  cxxxv.  15 — 20.     Ken.  in  loc. 

Isa.  ii.  2 — 4.  Mic.  iv.  1 — f).  There  is  no  presumption  that  the 
very  same  words  were  intended  to  be  used.     Isa.  n^ri''   pjj, 

Mic.  ])D} r]"r\' ;  Isa.  O'D^,  Mic.  O'U  ;  Isa.  J^jj'ji,  Mic. 

Kin  m:) ;  Isa.  OMjn  ^j,  Mic.  O'Dy  (3  MSS.  ^d)  ;  Isa.  a^:n 
O'DjrS,  "  m^nj  peoples,*'  Mic.  pim  n^  a^Di'r  CD'uS  "  strong 
nations  from  afar."      There  is  no  reason  to  correct  either, 
though  some  have  proposed  it. 
Lowth's  Isa.  in  loc. 

Matth.  xxvi.  26,  27,  28.      Mark  xiv.  22,  23,  24.     Luke  xxii. 
19,  20.     1  Cor.  xi.  23,  24,  25.     The  words  of  the  institution 
are  different,  but  not  to  be  assimilated  ;    they  are  intended 
only  to  express  the  sense. 
Macknight,  ib. 

468.  When,  among  various  readings,  one  agrees 
exactly  with  a  parallel  place,  the  other  only  in  sense, 
the  former  is  often,  for  that  very  reason,  suspicious, 
and,  except  it  be  well  supported  by  authority^  the 
latter  will,  generally,  deserve  the  preference. 

Michael,  ib. 

469.  Even  when  passages  are  most  exactly  similar 
in  themselves,  the  occasions,  or  the  application  of 
them,  may  contribute  to  our  understanding  their  full 
meaning. 

The  promises  of  Abraham,  Gen.  xii.  3. ;    to  Isaac,  ch.  xxi.  12. 
xxvi.  4. ;   and  to  Jacob,  ch.  xxviii.  14.  though  in  the  same 
words,  successively  limit  the  expectation  of  the  Messiah. 
Gerard,  vol.  1.  Serm.  6. 

Isa.  vi. 9,  10.  is  referred  to,  six  times  in  the  New  Testament; 
Mat  xiii.  14.  Mark  iv.  12.  Luke  viii.  10.  John  xii.  40» 
Acts  xxviii.  27.  Rom.  xi.  8. ;  a  comparison  of  all  which 
places  will  give  light  to  it. 


140  PARALLEL  PASSAGES. 

470.  Even  when  passages  are  very  much  parallel^ 
a  clear  and  precise  expression,  in  one  of  them,  may 
illustrate  one  more  obscure  and  ambiguous,  in  another. 

471.  Secondly,  those  passages  of  Scripture  are 
parallel,  which  relate  thu  same  facts.  They  are  nu- 
merous :  and  the  comparison  of  them  with  one  another 
is  productive  of  great  advantage. 

Many  parts  of  Gen.  are  parallel  to  1  Chron. — Many  parts  of 
Exod.  Lev.  Num.  to  Deut. — Sam.  King,  to  Chron — 2  Kings 
xviii.  13,  &c.  and  2  Chron,  xxxii.  &c.  to  Isa.  xxxvi.  &c. — ^the 
Gospels. 

472.  Such  passages  often  serve  for  correcting  false 
reiadings  in  each  other,  and  may  be  legitimately  ap- 
plied to  this  purpose  ;  particularly  in  proper  names, 
and  numbers  ;  when  the  sense  of  them,  as  they  stand, 
^s  irreconcileable ;  when  the  false  reading  might  have 
arisen  from  the  true,  by  a  natural  mistake ;  or,  when 
it  is  contradicted  by  copies  or  versions. 

Josh.  xxi.  1 3—37.  I  Chron.  vi.  42—66.     The  48  cities  of  the 
Levites ;  but  only  44  in  Josh,  according  to  the  Masoretic 
Hebrew,  and  only  42  in  Chron.      There  are  also  surprising 
differences  in  their  names. 
Ken.  in  loc. 

Deut.  ii.  26.  "with  words  of  peace,"  wanting  in  Num.  xxi.  21. 
but  found  in  the  Samaritan.  Deut.  v.  28.  *'  thou  shalt  sell 
me  meat  for  money,  that  I  may  eat;  and  give  me  water 
for  money,  that  I  may  drink  ;  only  I  will  pass  through  on 
my  feet.     Wanting  in  Num.  but  in  the  Samar. 

473.  But,  wherever  none  of  these  circumstances 
take  place,  it  is  probable  that  the  different  readings 
found  in  such  passages,  were  originally  intended,  and 
neither  of  them  ought  to  be  corrected  by  the  other. 


PARALLEL  PASSAGES.  141 

474.  Plain  and  direct  expressions,  in  one  narration, 
explain  such  as  are  difl5.cult,  in  another  narration  of 
the  same  fact. 

Mark  xiv.  72.  (No.  162.) 

475.  In  different  relations  of  the  same  fact,  circum- 
stances, omitted  in  one  of  them,  but  fit  for  throwing 
light  upon  it,  may  be  often  supplied  from  the  other. 

Mat.  ii.  1,  &c.  simply  relates  that  Jesus  was  born  at  Bethlehem, 
and  refers  to  Micah's  prediction  of  it.  But  Luke  ii.  1 — 4 
informs  us  of  the  reason  of  it,  which  accounts  for  it,  and 
renders  the  accomplishment  the  more  remarkable. 

476.  Thirdly,  passages  are  parallel,  in  which  the 
same  words  or  idioms  are  used  in  different  connexions, 
or  on  different  subjects  ;  and  the  comparison  of  such 
passages  is  of  very  great  utility,  for  ascertaining  the 
meaning  of  these  words  or  idioms. 

Glass,  ib. 

477.  If  any  one  sense  of  a  word  be  proper,  and 
suitable,  in  all  the  places  where  it  occurs,  that  is  most 
likely  to  be  the  true  sense  of  it. 

Pearce  on  1  Cor  ix.  27. 

'iCytxtvuTcc  S'iSuTx,ec>nx  "  sound  doctrine ;"    the  simple  doctrine 
of  revelation,  as   opposed  to  subtleties,  and  as   practical ; 
1  Tim.  i.  10  vi.  3.     2  Tim.  i.  13.  iv.  3.    Tit.  i.  9.  ii.  1,  2,  8. 
Gerard,  vol.  2.  serm.  5. 

AtxanafjLot,  translated  very  variously ;  Luke  i.  6.  Heb.  ix.  1,  10. 
"ordinance."  Rom.  i.  32.  Rev.  xv.  4.  "judgment."  Rom.  ii. 
26.  V.  18.  viii.  4.  Rev.  xix.  8.  "  righteousness."  Rom.  v. 
16.  ''justification."  It  every  where  signifies,  "  A  rule  jus- 
tifying or  rendering  perfect." 
Locke  on  Rom.  ii.  26.    Taylor  on  ch.  v.  1 6. 


142  PARALLEL  PASSAGES* 

478.  The  signification  of  words  and  phrases  ought 
to  be  taken  from  those  places,  in  which  it  is  ascertain- 
ed by  the  connexion,  or  the  nature  of  the  subject;  and 
accordingly  interpreted  in  places  where  there  is  noth- 
fng  that  can  thus  ascertain  it. 

Gen.  iv.  15.  "  The  Lord  set  (mx)  a  mark  upon  Cain."  This 
has  given  rise  to  strange  conceits  ;  but  the  word  often  signi- 
fies "  a  pledge  or  token,"  Gen.  ix.  12,  17.  particularly  "a 
miracle,"  and  this  is  its  most  common  signification;  "  a  mira- 
cle, to  assure  Cain  that  he  should  not  be  killed." 

Essay  for  a  new  translation,  p.  1.  ch.  6.  §  4. 
Gen.  vi.  2.  "  Sons  of  Got?,"  of  the  great  men  /    **  daughters  of 
?jie?i,"  meaner  persons,  (Psal.  xlix.  2.  Ixii.  9.  Ixxxii.  6,  7,  &c.) 
inp',  "took  them  by  force,"  (v.  11,  13.)  Gen,  xx.  2,  3.  xxxiv. 
2,  &c. 

Essay,  &c.  ib.  ch.  8.  §  6. 
Eccles.  xi.  1.  "Cast  thy  hread?^  (l^nS)  or  "  corn,'*  (Ruth  i.  6. 
Isa.  xxviii.  28.)  "  upon  the  waters,"  (O'DH)  or  "  moist 
ground,"  (Isa.  xv.  6.  xxx.  23.  xxxii.  20.  Jer.  xlviii.  34.)  "and 
after  many  days  thou  shalt  find  it."  connexion,  v.  4,  6. 
beautiful,  and  a  strong  argument. 

Essay,  &c.  ib.  ch.  10.  §  5. 
Rom.  vii.  5.  "  When  we  were  ev  tjj  a-eipKi,  in  the  flesh."  The 
expression  is  ambiguous.  "  understood  the  law  in  a  mere  lit- 
eral sense,"  (Locke)  wrong.  It  occurs  only  in  ch,  viii.  8. 
"  vicious,"  connexion,  v.  5,6,  7, 13.  it  has  the  same  sense  here, 
(Taylor.)  "  The  motions  of  sin  which  were  Six  m  vof^a,  by 
the  law ;"  Engl,  many  Comment  i.  e.  "  excited  by  it." 
wrong. "  in  the  state  of  being  under  the  law."  So  «J/  uKpo^v- 
o-Ttuq,  ch.  iv.  11.  also  2  Cor.  v.  10.  1  Tim.  ii.  15.  Eph.  iii.  6. 

Locke  in  loc. 

479.  The  clear  meaning  of  a  phrase,  in  any  part  of 
Scripture,  has  great  authority  for  determining  its 
sense  in  any  other  part ;  but  the  usage  of  it,  in  the 
writings  of  one  author,  has  the  greatest  authority  for 


PARALLEL  PASSAGES.  143 

fixing  its  sense,  as  elsewhere  used  by  the  same  author ; 
for,  in  one  writer,  a  greater  similarity  of  style  may  be 
expected,  than  in  different  writers. 

480.  When  a  word  is  used  somtimes  in  a  literal, 
and  sometimes  in  a  metaphorical  sense,  it  must  not  be 
supposed  that  it  implies,  in  the  latter  case,  all  that  it 
implies  in  the  former  case  ;  similitude,  in  some  one  res- 
pect, being  sufficient  for  the  propriety  of  a  metaphor. 

481.  It  is  particularly  absurd,  and  of  pernicious 
consequence,  to  deduce  articles  of  faith  from  meta- 
phorical expressions,  supposed  to  be  meant  in  all  the 
strictness  of  their  literal  sense. 

482.  The  metaphorical  sense  of  a  word  should  be 
explained  by  the  literal,  and  the  more  remote  meta- 
phorical sense  by  the  less  remote ;  and  not  contra- 
riwise. 

483.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  bring  passages  to- 
gether, merely  by  the  sound ;  or,  to  suppose  that 
texts  relate  to  the  same  subject,  or  contain  the  same 
sentiment,  merely  because  the  same  expressions  are 
used  in  them. 

Locke,  Pref.  Essay  for  a  new  Transl.  p.  1.  c.  6.  §  16,  17,  18. 

484.  Fourthly,  those  passages  are  parallel,  which 
treat  of  the  same  subject  in  different  expressions ;  and 
the  comparison  of  such  is  of  great  use  for  illustrating 
one  another,  and  making  that  subject  more  perfectly 
understood. 

Locke,  Pref.  Glass,  ib. 


144  PARALLEL  PASSAGES. 

485.  In  comparing  such  passages,  obscure  expres- 
sions should  be  explained  by  such  as  are  perspicuous; 
and  ambiguous  expressions,  by  such  as  are  precise. 

486.  Passages  are,  in  this  manner,  parallel,  which 
express  the  same  doctine,  or  precept,  in  different 
terms ;  and  difficult,  or  figurative  expressions,  in  one 
such  passage,  are  to  be  interpreted  by  such  as  are 
easy,  or  proper,  in  another. 

Gal.  vi.  15.  "Anew  creature'*  figurative — explained  by  ch. 
V.  6.  "  Faith  which  worketh  by  love  ;''  and  by  1  Cor.  vii.  19. 
«  The  keeping  of  the  commandments  of  God."  proper,  all 
synonymous. 

487.  It  is  not  from  one  such  passage,  taken  singly, 
that  a  doctrine  or  precept  ought  to  be  collected,  as 
has  been  too  often  the  practice ;  but  from  them  all, 
taken  in  conjunction,  consistently  explained,  with  such 
limitations  of  the  expressions  in  each,  as  the  rest  shew 
to  be  necessary. 

488.  Predictions  of  the  same  events,  given  at  dif- 
ferent times  or  by  different  prophets,  along  with  a 
degree  of  similarity  sufiicient  for  indicating  the  iden- 
tity of  their  subject,  generally  have  such  variety  in 
the  expression,  as  enables  one  to  illustrate  another ; 
and  one  of  them  often  intimates  some  circumstances 
omitted  in  another. 

489.  A  passage  which  contains  a  prediction,  and 
passages  which  relate  its  accomplishment,  are  parallel ; 
and  the  latter  not  only  verify  the  former,  but,  gener- 
ally illustrate  the  meaning  of  the  expressions  employ- 
ed in  it. 


PASSAGES  NOT  PARALLEL.  146 

Oen.  xlix.  7.  "  I  will  divide  them  (Simeon  and  Levi)  in  Jacob, 
and  scatter  them  in  Israel ;"  not  that  they  were  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  other  tribes ;  but  Simeon  had  only  part  of 
the  land  of  Judah,  Josh.  xix.  1,  9.  and  went  in  search  of  dis- 
tant accommodation,  I  Chron,  iv.  39 ;  and  Levi  some  cities 
in  every  tribe.  Josh.  xxi.  1  Chron.  vi, 
Newton  on  Prophecy,  Diss.  4. 
Isa.  iii.  2,  3.  explained  by  2  King.  xxiv.  14. 

Lowth  in  ioc. 
Isa.  xxxiil.  by  ch.  xxxvi.  &c, 
Lowth  in  Ioc. 


SECT.  IL 

Compqinson  of  Passages  not  parallel. 

490.  Passages  of  Scripture,  which  have  none  of 
the  relations  hitherto  mentioned,  cannot  be  considered 
as  parallel ;  yet  they  may  often  be  compared  in  some 
respects  ;  and,  from  the  comparison  of  them,  consider- 
able light  may  be  derived. 

491.  Expressions,  phrases,  and  idioms,  used  in 
different  texts,  concerning  different  subjects,  may  be, 
though  not  the  same,  yet  so  similar,  as  to  illustrate 
one  another. 

492.  A  passage,  relating  to  one  subject,  may  re- 
ceive illustration  from  another,  in  which  an  analogous 
subject  is  treated  with  a  different  manner  of  expres- 
sion. 

19 


146  PASSAGES  NOT  PARALLE^. 

493.  One  passage  of  Scripture  sometimes  alludes, 
or,  in  some  way,  refers,  to  another,  and  may  be  ex- 
plained by  being  compared  with  it. 

494.  One  passage  of  Scripture  sometimes  points 
out  the  occasion,  origin,  and  meaning  of  words  and 
phrases  used  in  other  passages. 

Chandler's  Defence  of  Christianity,  c.  2.  s.  1.   Newton,  ib. 
Diss.  14. 

495.  One  passage  of  Scripture  may  serve  for  re- 
stricting general  expressions,  and  duly  limiting  the 
sense,  in  another  which  cannot  be  considered  as  paral- 
lel to  it. 

Mat.  iv.  6,  7.  Luke  iv.  9—1 2.  Christ  limits  and  explains  the 
devil's  quotation  from  Psal.  xci.  11.  by  Deut.  vi.  16. 

496.  Comparison  of  different  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture sometimes  contributes  to  our  discovering  the  de- 
sign of  a  part  of  Scripture,  or  the  occasion  of  writing 
it. 

497.  The  comparison  of  passages,  in  no  respect 
parallel,  is  often  of  great  use,  for  fixing  the  dates  and 
chronology  of  events. 

498.  The  comparison  of  different  passages  often 
explains  customs,  manners,  or  opinions,  the  knowledge 
of  Vv  hich  is  conducive  to  our  understanding  the  Scrip- 
tures. 

499.  It  is  often  by  comparing  different  passages, 
that  we  can  ascertain  what  are  the  places,  or  nations, 
meant  in  Scripture,  by  names  which  occur  not  in  pro- 
fane history. 


ANALOGY  OF  FAITH.  147 

Ghittim  is  a  name  which  frequently  occurs.  It  is  a  general 
name  for  "  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  ;'* 
Gen.  X.  5.  countries  to  which  the  Asiatics  went  by  sea ;  Isa. 
xxiii.  1,  12.  Carthage  and  the  Mediterranean  islands ;  Jer.  ii. 
10.  countries  westward  from  Judea  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  6.  Corsica ; 
Dan.  xi.  29.     The  Romans. 

Newton,  ib.  Diss.  5.     Lowth's  Isaiah,  xxiii.  1. 


SECT.  III. 

Comparison  of  particular  Passages  with  the  Analogy  oj 

Faith, 

500.  As  one  passage  may  be  compared  with  anoth- 
er passage,  so  a  particular  passage  may  be  compared 
with  the  analogy  of  faith,  that  is,  with  the  general 
tenor  of  the  doctrine  taught  in  Scripture. 

Glass,  Philol.  Sacr.  1.  2.  p.  2.  s.  2. 

501.  All  the  great  principles  of  religion  may  be 
collected  from  Scripture,  while  yet  many  particular 
texts  remain  not  understood.  When  thus  collected, 
they  form  the  analogy  of  faith,  and  may  be  applied  to 
the  illustration  of  these  texts,  which  must  be  explain- 
ed in  a  consistency  with  them. 

502.  But,  the  application  of  this  instrument  of  cri- 
ticism is  very  liable  to  abuse.  There  is  considerable 
difficulty  in  fairly  collecting  the  genuine  tenor  of 
Scripture  doctrine  ;  there  is  great  danger  of  substitut- 
ing, in  the  place  of  it,  preconceived,  and  precarious 


148  ANALOGY  OP  PAITH. 

opinions,  and  of  wresting  particular  passages,  in  order 
to  reconcile  them  to  these ;  and,  therefore,  the  great- 
est care  and  caution  are  absolutely  necessary,  for  ren- 
dering it  really  useful. 
Locke,  Pref.  Glass,  ib. 

503.  No  doctrine  can  belong  to  the  analogy  of  faith, 
which  is  founded  on  a  single  text ;  for,  every  essential 
principle  of  religion  is  delivered  in  more  than  one 
place  ;  but  this  rule  has  not  always  been  observed. 

Extreme  unction  is  founded  only  on  Jam.  v.  14,  15,  perverted 
from  a  temporary  direction,  to  a  perpetual  institution, — 
from  a  mean  of  recovery,  to  a  charm,  vrhen  recovery  is  des- 
perate, for  the  salvation  of  the  soul. 

Cameron,  Grotius,  Benson,  in  loc. 

504.  The  analogy  of  faith  ought  to  be  collected 
from,  or  the  tenor  of  Scripture  ascertained  by,  such 
texts  as  are  plain  and  clear,  and  expressed  in  proper 
terms  ;  not  from  such  as  are  doubtful,  obscure,  ambi- 
guous, or  figurative,  which  ought  to  be  explained 
by  those  others  ;  but  men  have  often  taken  the  con- 
trary road. 

Glass,  ib. 
Transubstantiation  is  founded  on  a  strictly  literal  interpretation 
of  figurative  expressions,  "  this  is  my  body,"  Mat.  xxvi. 
26,  &c,  and  (which  too  has  no  relation  to  the  supper)  **  eat 
"  my  flesh,  drink  my  blood,"  John  vi.  51 — 58. 

505.  In  ascertaining  the  analogy  of  faith,  texts 
which  treat  professedly  of  a  subject,  have  greater 
weight  than  such  as  only  touch  it  incidentally ;  and 
texts  which  express  it  absolutely,  and  as  it  is  in  itself, 


ANALOGY    OF   FAITH.  149 

are  clearer,  and  more  decisive,  than  such  as  have  a 
reference  to  particular  occasions,  without  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  which  they  cannot  be  understood,  but 
may  be  totally  misapprehended. 

506.  In  forming  the  analogy  of  faith  all  the  plain 
texts  relating  to  one  subject,  or  article,  ought  to  be 
taken  together,  impartially  compared,  the  expressions 
of  one  of  them  restricted  by  those  of  another,  and  ex- 
plained in  mutual  consistency,  and  that  article  deduced 
from  them  all  in  conjunction  ;  not,  as  has  been  most 
commonly  the  practice,  one  set  of  texts  selected,  which 
have  the  same  aspect,  explained  in  their  greatest  pos- 
sible rigour ;  and  all  others,  which  look  another  way, 
neglected  or  explained  away,  and  tortured  into  a 
compatibility  with  the  opinion,  in  that  manner  partial- 
ly deduced. 

507.  The  analogy  of  faith,  as  applicable  to  the  ex- 
amination of  particular  passages,  ought  to  be  very 
short,  simple,  and  purely  scriptural ;  but  most  sects 
conceive  it,  as  taking  in  all  the  complex  peculiarities, 
and  scholastic  refinements,  of  their  own  favourite  sys- 
tems. 

508.  If  these  rules  be  not  strictly  observed,  the 
comparison  of  particular  passages  with  the  analogy  of 
faith  will  be  so  far  from  contributing  to  the  illustra- 
tion of  Scripture,  that  it  will  only  pervert  it,  in  con- 
formity to  men's  prejudices  and  false  opinions,  as  has 
been  very  frequently  the  case. 

Locke,  Pref. 


150  ANALOGY  OF  FAITH. 

509.  On  a  supposition  of  its  being  most  agreeable 
to  the  analogy  of  faith,  a  false  or  suspicious  read- 
ing has  been  sometimes  adopted ;  and,  on  a  supposi- 
tion of  its  repugnance  to  that  analogy,  a  reading  or  a 
passage,  unquestionably  genuine,  has  been  sometimes 
rejected. 

Michael.  §  15. 

liuke  xxii.  43, 44.  concerning  "  an  angel  strengthening  Christ 
in  his  agony  ;"  omitted  in  the  Alexandrian  and  some  other 
MSS.  and  marked  with  asterisks  in  others  ;  denied  by  sev- 
eral of  the  Fathers,  because  reckoned  inconsistent  with  his 
divinity  and  urged  by  the  Arians. 

Grot.  Erasm.  in  loc.  Mill  in  loc.  and  Prol.  No.  797, 798. 

The  epistle  of  James  rejected  by  some,  as  contrary  to  the 
analogy  of  faith  concerning  justification  ;  but  undoubtedly 
genuine. 

Schultet.  Observ,  in  2  Tim.  i.  13.  c.  4.  apud  Crit.  Sac,  torn. 
7.  p.  3868. 

510.  But  a  reading  ought  to  be  examined  by  the 
direct  evidence  for  and  against  it,  not  by  its  connexion 
with  any  set  of  opinions ;  and  that  reading,  which 
seems  fittest  for  supporting  an  article  of  faith,  is  not 
always  to  be  preferred  to  another  which  has  no  rela- 
tion to  it ;  for  it  might  not  be  the  view  of  that  passage 
to  support  that  article,  however  true. 

Wetstein,  Prol.  c.  16,  §  12. 

511.  For  the  same  reason,  that  interpretation  of  a 
particular  passage  which  is  most  favourable  to  a  real, 
or  supposed  article  of  faith,  is  not,  on  that  account, 
to  be  always  preferred ;  and  the  most  obvious  and  nat- 
ural sense  is  to  be  set  aside,  only  when  it  is  absolutely 
contradictory  to  something  plainly  taught  in  Scrip- 


ANALOGY  OF   FAITH.  151 

ture  ;  but  the  opposite  way  has  often  been  taken  by 
all  sects. 

Mat.  xvi.  18.  "Thou  art  Peter,  and  on  this  rock  I  will  build 
my  church,"  o-v  Uerfoq^  kxi  btti  recvTTi  tjj  Trerpu,.  Building 
on  Peter  is  explained  away  by  some,  as  contrary  to  the 
faith  that  Christ  in  the  only  foundation,  1  Cor.  iii.  11.  and 
as  favouring  the  supremacy  of  Peter  and  his  successors. 
But  the  connexion  shows,  that  Peter  is  here  plainly  meant; 
the  apostles  are  elsewhere  called  the  foundation  on  which 
the  church  is  built,  Eph.  ii.  20.  Rev.  xxi.  14.  as  the  persons 
employed  in  erecting  the  church,  by  preaching.  It  is  here 
promised,  that  Peter  should  begin  erecting  it,  by  his 
preaching,  which  was  fulfilled,  both  among  the  Jews,  Acts 
ii,  14,  &c.  and  among  the  Gentiles,  ch.  x.  xv  7.  This 
gives  no  countenance  to  the  papal  supremacy,  but  the  con- 
trary ;  for  this  prerogative  was  personal  and  incommu- 
nicable. 

Critic,  in  loc. 

John  xvii.  2.  'hot,  ITAN  o  hSeoxetg  etvret)^  Saa-vi  xvroig  t^aviv  utavidv^ 
may  signify,  by  an  enallage,  of  which  there  are  some  in- 
stances, "  that  he  should  give  eternal  life  to  as  many  as 
thou  hast  given  him."  Eng.  after  Beza,  most  favourable 
to  predestination.  But  literally,  "  that  he  should  give  to 
them,  all  that  thou  hast  given  to  him,  eternal  iife."  This 
the  natural  and  proper  sense,  and  contradicts  no  article 
of  faith. 

512.  But,  if  all  the  rules  which  have  been  laid 
down,  be  strictly  observed,  the  comparison  of  partic- 
ular passages  with  the  general  tenor  of  Scripture  will 
be  of  the  greatest  use  ;  particularly,  for  preventing 
our  overstretching  figurative  and  metaphorical  ex- 
pressions, for  enabling  us  to  restrict  general  expres- 
sions, for  setting  aside  opinions  hastily  deduced  from 
a  few  separate  texts,  and  for  giving  every  doctrine  its 
proper  limitations. 


162  CIVIL  HISTORY. 


CHAP.  VII. 

History  and  Manners, 

513.  HiSTORYj  especially  ancient  history,  contri- 
butes, in  many  instances,  and  in  different  ways,  to  the 
illustration  of  Scripture. 

514.  To  this  head  belong,  civil  history,  political 
history,  customs  and  manners^  chronology^  geography^ 
and  natural  history. 


SECT.  I. 

Of  Civil  History. 

615.  By  civil  history  we  mean,  relations  of  actions 
and  events  ;  and  many  such  relations  throw  light  upon 
the  Scriptures,  and  have  been  often  applied  to  this 
purpose. 

Shuckford's  and  Prideaux's  Connexions.  Stackhouse's  Hist,  of 
the  Bible.  Benson's  Hist,  of  Christianity.  Lardner's  Credi- 
bility, p.  1.  b.  1. 

516.  Relations,  by  other  historians,  of  the  same  facts 
which  are  related  in  Scripture,  illustrate  the  historical 
parts  of  it,  in  much  the  same  manner  as  parallel  pas- 
sages of  Scripture. 


CIVIL  HISTORY.  163 

517.  Such  relations^  by  other  historians,  often  con- 
firm the  relations  of  the  sacred  historians,  even  con- 
cerning facts  which  appear  most  extraordinary. 

Matt.  XXV ii.  51,  &c.  confirmed  by  several  heathen  historians. 
Usser.  Annal. 

Acts  xii.  21 — 23.  Luke's  account  of  Herod's  death,  confirm- 
ed in  all  material  circumstances  by  Josephus.  Antiq.  1. 19. 
c.  8. 

518.  When  other  historians  relate  the  same  events 
with  the  sacred  writers,  they  often  record  circumstances 
omitted,  or  only  hinted  at,  by  these  and  fit  for  throw- 
ing light  upon  them. 

Acts  xii.  21 .  "  Upon  a  set  day,  "  the  second  of  the  shows  in 
honour  of  the  Emperor.  Joseph,  ib. — "  In  royal  apparel," 
a  robe  of  silver,  reflecting  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun  which 
fell  upon  it.    Jos.  ib. 

519.  Other  historians  often  relate  events  not  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  but  connected  with  such  as  are 
there  recorded,  and  fit  for  throwing  light  on  the  nar- 
ration of  them. 

Acts  xii.  1 — 3.  Herod's  fondness  for  the  Jews,  and  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians  ;  the  former  confirmed, and  the  latter 
accounted  for,  by  his  great  zeal  for  the  law.  Joseph.  Antiq. 
1.  19.  c.  7. 

520.  Histories  of  the  events  foretold  in  Scripture, 
whenever  we  have  them  accurate  and  full,  throw  great 
light  on  the  meaning  of  the  predictions  concerning  these 
events,  and  generally  shew  the  punctual  accomplish- 
ment of  them,  even  in  their  minutest  circumstances. 

Gen.  xvii.  20.      "  Twelve  princes  shall  he  (Ishmael)  beget," 
the  names  of  his  twelve  sons,  ch.  xxv.  12 — 16.    The  Ara- 
bians have  always  lived  in  tribes,  each  governed  by  a 
20 


154}  CIVIL  HISTORY. 

prince,  or  Phylarch,  (Strabo,!.  16.  Hicron.  quaest.  iHeb, 
Thevenot,  p.  1.  b.  2.  c.  32.  Harris's  Voyages,  v.  2.  b.  2. 
c.  9.)  and  these,  for  a  long  time,  twelve  in  number.  Melo 
ap.  Euseb.  prsep.  Evang.  1.  9.  c.  19. 

Cleric,  in  loc.  Newton  on  Proph.  Diss  2. 
Nahum  foretells,  ch.  i.  10.  that  Nineveh  should  be  taken 
when  the  people  were  drunk ;  and  so  it  was,  Diod.  Sicul. 
1.  2. — chap.  ii.  6.  that  "  the  gates  of  the  river  should  be 
opened,  and  the  palace  dissolved  ;'  the  river  broke  down 
twenty  furlongs  of  the  wall,  and  overflowed  part  of 
the  town  ;  and  the  king  burnt  himself,  with  his  palace.  See. 
Diodor.  ib. — v.  9  "great  spoil  of  gold  and  silver;"  many 
talents,  Diodor.  ib.— ch.  i.  8,  9.  ii.  11,  13.  iii.  17,  18,  19. 
and  Zeph.  ii.  13,  14,  15.  "  its  destruction  total ;"  so  much 
that  the  oldest  historians  speak  of  it  only  as  having  once 
been,  and  differ  even  about  its  situation. 

Newton,  ib.  Diss.  9. 

Isa.  vi.  13.  is  obscure  and  variously  explained, but  made  clear, 
partly  by  sacred  history;  "  a  tenth  left,"  2  Kings  xxv.  12, 
22.  "  others  gathered  themselves  and  returned,"  Jer.  xl. 

7 12.;  partly  from  profane  history;  the  destruction  of 

Jerusalem — the  Jews  again  multiplying — their  being  near- 
ly exterminated  by  Hadrian,  yet  subsisting  numerous  still. 
Lowth  in  loc. 

521.  The  Scripture  contains  allusions  to  facts  not 
mentioned  in  it,  but  related  by  other  historians  ;  and  it 
is  from  their  relations^  that  these  allusions  must  be  ex- 
plained. 


POLITICAL  HISTORY.  155 


SECT.  II. 

Of  Political  History, 

522.  Political  History,  by  which  we  mean  ac- 
counts of  the  constitution  of  states,  their  laws,  and 
forms  of  judgment,  is  often  conducive  to  the  ilhistra- 
tion  of  Scripture. 

523.  A  considerable  part  of  Scripture  has  for  its 
professed  subject  the  nature  of  the  Hebrew  constitution 
of  government,  and  its  particular  laws  ;  and,  the  right 
interpretation  of  that  part  of  Scripture,  is  coincident 
with  the  knowledge  of  these. 

524.  It  is  from  the  nature  of  the  Hebrew  govern- 
ment, that  we  can  deduce  the  precise  import  of  expres- 
sions, which  take  their  rise  from  particulars  belonging 
to  it. 

525.  The  Scripture  contains  allusions  to  particulars 
in  the  government  and  laws  of  the  Hebrews,  and, 
therefore,  receives  illustration  from  these  particulars, 
and  must  be  explained  by  them.  ^ 

Dan.  vii.  9,  10.  The  images  taken  from  the  Sanhedrim. 

Newton,  ib.  DivSS.  14. 
Mat.  V.  21,  22.  Three  degrees  of  guilt,  expressed  in  terms 
borrowed  from  Jewish  judicatories,  for  different  offences,  and 
different  punishments,  x-pttric,,  a  court  of  23  in  every  city, 
for  civil  offences,  could  strangle  or  behead.  o-weS'^iov,  the 
Sanhedrin,  for  heinous  crimes,  stoned  to  death,  ysevvx  m 
^vpoi,  burning  in  the  valley  of  Hinnom. 
Grot.    Macknight  in  loc. 


156  POLITICAL  HISTORY. 

526.  Though  the  laws  of  the  Hebrews  were  fixed 
by  divine  authority,  and  continued,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, unvaried,  yet  their  government  underwent  sev- 
eral revolutions,  which  introduced  alterations  in  sev- 
eral respects,  under  the  Judges,  under  the  Kings, 
during  the  captivity,  after  their  return  from  it,  and 
on  their  subjection  to  the  Romans. 

527.  Knowledge  of  the  peculiarities  of  their  situa- 
tion, in  all  these  periods,  is  conducive  to  the  illustra- 
tion of  Scripture  ;  especially  their  state,  the  privileges 
which  they  enjoyed,  and  the  restrictions  which  they 
were  under  in  the  last  of  them,  contribute  to  the  ex- 
plication of  many  passages  of  the  New  Testament. 

Under  the  Romans,  the  Jews  were  protected  in  the  tree  exercise 
of  their  religion,  were  governed  by  their  own  laws,  and 
permitted  to  live  according  to  their  own  customs.  Joseph. 
Antiq.  1.  14  c.  10. 

1  Cor.  vi.  5,  6.  "  Christians  going  before  heathen  judges,"  are 
reproved ;  they  were  considered  as  a  Jewish  sect,  and  might 
have  decided  their  own  differences. 

The  Jews  had  their  council,  whicli  might  apprehend,  examine, 
confine,  inflict  smaller  punishments,  and  carry  before  the 
Governor  for  capital  offences.  All  these  privileges  were 
exercised  in  the  trial  of  Jesus.  But  they  had  not  the  power 
of  inflicting  capital  punishment.    John  xviii.  31. 

John  viii.  3—11.  The  question  concerning  the  adulteress,  very 
artfully  insidious.  If  Jesus  said,  "  she  ought  to  be  stoned  to 
death,"  they  might  accuse  him  to  the  Governor,  or  throw 
on  him  the  blame  of  an  illegal  act ;  if,  "  she  ought  not,"  they 
might  expose  him  to  the  people. 
Lardner,  Credibility,  p.  1.  b.  1.  c.  2. 

The  governor,  before  passing  sentence  on  a  person  brouglit  be- 
fore him  by  the  Jews,  was  obliged  to  reexamine  the  cause 
himself. 


POLITICAL  HISTORY.  157 

Lardner,  ib. 
This  explains  Pilate's  trying  Jesus  anew,  though  pronounced 
worthy  of  death  by  the  council  ;    and   Felix's  trying  Paul, 
though  sent  with  a  declaration  of  his  innocence  by  Lysias. 

528.  The  nature  of  the  constitution  of  other  states 
contributes  sometimes  to  the  illustration  of  scripture  ; 
it  shews  the  meaning  and  the  propriety  of  terms  used 
in  Scripture^  for  expressing  any  particulars^  belonging 
to  it. 

Acts  xiii.  7.  Sergius  is  called  proconsul  (xvSvTicToi)  of  Cyprus, 
the  proper  title  of  the  governor  of  a  province  belonging  to 
the  people,  as  avTiG-rpotTnyei  of  one  belonging  to  the  Empe- 
ror. Cyprus  (though  in  the  first  partition  belonging  to  the 
Emperor,  Strabo,  1.  14.)  had  been  before  this  time  given, 
along  with  Narbon  Gaul,  to  the  people,  in  exchange  for 
Dalmatia. 

Lardner,  ib.  p.  1.  b.  1.  c.  1.  §  11. 
Actsxviii.  12.  Gallio  Proconsul  {etvBvTruTsvm)  of  Achaia.  This 
was  originally  given  to  the  people ;  afterwards  to  the  Em- 
peror ;  again,  A.  D.  44,  to  the  people  :  continued  theirs  at 
this  time,  A.  52  or  55 ;  but  soon  after  they  lost  it  under 
Nero.  , 

Lardner,  ib.  §  12. 

529.  The  Scripture  contains  expressions  derived 
from  the  constitution  or  laws  of  other  states,  and  allu- 
sions to  them ;  which  are  to  be  explained  from  the 
accounts  given  of  them. 

Acts  xvi.  37,  38.  *»  They  have  beaten  us  openly  uncondemned, 
being  Romans  ;  the  Magistrates  feared  when  they  heard  that 
they  were  Romans."  There  is  here  an  allusion  to  two  Ro- 
man laws,  against  scourging  a  citizen,  and  against  punishing 
unheard  and  uncondemned.  Cicero  in  Verrem. 
Lardner,  ib.  c.  10.  §  S,  4. 


158  CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS. 

530.  The  Scripture  sometimes  simply  relates  facts, 
the  reason  of  which  is  to  be  learned  only  from  accounts 
of  the  constitution  and  laws  of  a  particular  state. 

Gen.  xlvii.  22.  Joseph  "  bought  not  the  land  of  the  priests," 
because  two  thirds  of  their  revenues  were  for  the  expense  of 
their  worship.     Diod.  Sicul. 
Warburton,  Div.  Leg.  b.  4.  s.  3. 


SECT.  III. 


Of  Customs  and  Manners, 

531.  Knowledge  of  the  customs  and  manners  of 
the  Israelites  is  of  very  great  use,  and  the  knowledge 
of  those  of  other  nations  is  of  considerable  use,  for 
illustrating  many  passages  of  Scripture. 

532.  As  the  customs  and  manners  of  every  people 
have  a  great  influence  on  their  language,  those  of  the 
Israelites  must  contribute  very  much  to  our  entering 
into,  and  understanding  the  style  of  Scripture,  the 
greatest  part  of  which  is  written  in  their  language, 
and  the  whole  in  their  idiom. 

533.  The  Israelites  have  proper  terms  for  expressing 
what  belonged  to  their  simple  and  uniform  manner 
of  life,  and  the  practices  of  pasturage  and  agriculture, 
with  which  almost  alone  they  were  acquainted  ;  but 
were  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  metaphors  for  ex- 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS.  159 

pressing  what  belonged  to  a  more  refined  state  of  so- 
ciety, a  greater  distinction  of  ranks,  and  a  greater 
multiplicity  of  arts. 

534.  Many  of  the  Scripture  metaphors  are  taken 
from  their  arts  of  agriculture  and  pasturage  ;  and  can 
be  understood  only  by  our  knowing  the  manner  in 
which  they  performed  the  several  operations  belong- 
ing to  these  arts. 

Lowth.  Sacr.  Poes.  prselect.  7. 

From  threshing,  for  crushing  enemies ;  perspicuous  and  strong. 
Hab.  iii.  12.  "  Thou  didst  thresh  the  heathen  in  ano-er." 

o 

From  different  methods  of  threshing,  which  are  described,  Isa. 
xxviii.  27,  28.     Lowth's  Isa.  in  loc. 

1.  With  the  staff  2.  The  drag,  a  frame  of  planks,  rough 
below,  with  stones  or  iron,  drawn  by  horses,  (Kempfer 
Amon.  Exot.  p.  682.)  Mic.  iv.  13,  "  Arise  and  thresh,  I 
will  make  thine  horn  iron,  thy  hoofs  brass,  and  thou  shalt 
beat  in  pieces  many  people."  3.  The  wain,  like  the  former, 
but  with  wheels  edged  like  a  saw,  (Hieron.  in  loc.  Niebuhr, 
Voyage.)  Isa.  xli.  15.  "  I  will  make  thee  a  new  threshing 
instrument — ^thou  shalt  thresh  the  mountains — beat  them 
small  — make  the  hills  as  chaff."  4.  The  treading  of  oxen, 
Deut.  XXV.  4,  The  threshing  floor  was  high,  open  to  the 
wind  for  dispersing  the  chaff,  (2  Chron.  iii.  1.)  when  they 
fanned  the  corn.  Isa.  xli.  15.  "  The  wind  shall  carry  themi 
away,  the  whirlwind  shall  scatter  them." 

535.  Many  of  the  Scripture  metaphors  and  images 
are  taken  from  the  customs  of  the  Israelites  in  their 
common  life  ;  and,  it  is  the  knowledge  of  these  that 
can  enable  us  to  perceive  the  meanings  force^  and  pro- 
priety of  such. 

Lowth,  Sacr.  Poes.  praelect.  7. 

"Mixt  wine,"  means,  in  Greek   and  Latin,  "diluted  with 


160  CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS. 

water ;"  but,  among  the  Hebrews,  "  made  stronger  by  the 
addition  of  spices  or  drugs."  Hence,  "mingling  wine, 
spiced  wine,"  for  feasts,  Prov.  ix.  2.  Song  viii.  2.  This 
was  derived  from  their  manners,  their  fondness  for  such 
mixture.  Therefore,  it  is  a  proper  description  of  a  drunk- 
ard. Prov.  xxiii.  30.  to  "  seek  mixt  wine ;"  Isa.  v.  22.  "  to 
mingle  strong  drink."  It  was  intoxicating  and  stupifying; 
therefore,  a  strong  metaphor  for  severe  and  confounding 
judgments ;  Psal.  Ixxv.  9.  "  a  cup,  the  wine  red,*'  turbid, 
"  full  of  mixture,  poured  out"  from  vessel  to  vessel,  to  mix 
it  perfectly;  "the  dregs  thereof,"  the  sediment  of  the  strong 
ingredients  mixt  in  it,  "the  wicked  shall  drink."  Isa.  li. 
17,  &c.  "The  cup  of  fury,  the  dregs  of  the  cup  of  trem- 
bling," producing  intoxication,  and  confusion,  and  stagger- 
ing ;  "sons  unable  to  lead,  fainting,  lying  at  the  head  of  the 
streets,  full  of  the  fury  of  Jehovah."  Rev.  xiv.  10.  "Shall 
drink  of  the  wine  of  the  wrath  of  God.  m  xexepuTiicevii  ecKpxTn, 
(not,  "poured  out  without  mixture,"  as  in  the  English 
version,)  "  mixt  pure,"  (merum  mixtum.)  This  seeming- 
ly contradictory ;  but  it  is  precise,  "  pure  wine  made  stronger 
by  the  mixture  of  powerful  ingredients.'*  The  image  poet- 
ical and  sublime.  Isa.  i.  22.  "  Wine  mixt  with  water,"  an 
image  for  "  corruption,  depravity,"  the  stronger,  because  the 
orientals  drink  it  not  thus  mixt.  Thevenot,  Voyage,  p.  2. 
1.  2.  c.  10. 

Lowth's  Isa.  in  loc. 
Their  manner  of  burying,  and  sepulchres,  afford  many  images, 
particularly  for  the  state  of  the  dead,— Caves  dug  below 
ground,— -out  of  rocks,— dark,— surrounded  with  nitcfies, 
each  holding  a  coffin.  Job  x.  21,  22.  xxxiii.  18.  Psal. 
Ixxxviii.  6.  Isa.  xiv.  9—19.  xxxviii.  10.  lix.  10.  Ezek. 
xxxii.  18. 

Lowth,  Sacr.  Poes.  priiel.  7.  and  Isa.  xiii.  xiv. 

536.  Many  of  the  Scripture  images  are  taken  from 
the  religious  customs  and  rites  of  the  Israelites  ;  and, 
the  knowledge  of  these,  not  only  shows  their  import 
and  force,  but  adds  dignity  to  them,  by  reason  of  their 
relation  to  religion. 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS.  161 

Virtue,  represented  bj  cleanness;  vice,  by  uncleanness.  Natur- 
ally, but  with  greater  propriety  and  force,  as  referring  to 
the  legal  distinction  of  clean  and  unclean,  and  the  particular 
things  reckoned  such.     Isa.  i.   15,  16.  to  Lev.  xiv.  8,  9,  47. 
♦  (Lowth  in  loc.)  Ixiv.  6.  Lam.  i.  8,  9.    Ezek.  xxxvi.  17, 
Lowth,ib. 

Psal.  cxxxix.  15.  "I  was  curiously  wrought,  ^nnpl,  wrought,  as 
with  a  needle."    A  beautiful  image  of  the  human  texture,  but 
dignified  by  needle  work  being  appropriated  to  some  partic- 
ulars in  the  sanctuary.     Exod.  xxvi.  36.  xxvii.  16.  xxviii.  39. 
Lowth,  ib. 

Psal.  civ.  1,  &c."  Clothed  with  honour  and  majesty,"  allud- 
ing to  the  high  priest's  sacred  and  magnificent  robe.  "  Co- 
verest  thyself  with  light,"  to  the  Schechinah.  «  Stretchest 
out  the  heavens  like  a  curtain,"  that  which  covered  the  ta- 
bernacle. "  Layeth  the  beams  of  the  chambers  in  the  wa- 
ters," to  the  many  parts  of  the  tabernacle  easily  put  toge- 
ther. "Maketh  the  clouds  his  chariot,  walketh  on  the 
wings  of  the  wind,"  to  the  Schechinah  when  the  ark  moved, 
aloft  in  the  air.  "  Maketh  the  winds  his  messengers,  a  flame 
of  fire  his  servants,"  to  the  ministers  serving  constantly  in 
the  tabernacle. 
Lowth,  ib. 

537.  There  are,  in  Scripture,  images  taken  from 
the  customs  and  manners  of  other  nations  besides  the 
Israelites,  which  may  be  explained  from  these. 

From  hieroglyphical  symbols.  The  luminaries,  for  empires. 
Lions  and  bears,  for  generals  and  warriors.  From  ordinary 
customs.  Dan.  ii.  31,  &c.  In  Nebuchadnezzar's  vision, 
"  A  great  image  of  human  form,"  represents  empire  and 
dominion ;  in  medals,  cities  and  nations  are  thus  represented, 
V.  32,  39.  "  The  belly  and  thighs  of  brass ;"  the  Macedo- 
nian empire,  on  account  of  their  brazen  armour.  Joseph. 
Antiq.  1.  10.  c.  10. 
Newton  on  Proph.  Diss.  IS. 
21 


162  CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS. 

538.  The  sacred  writers  often  allude  to  particular 
tustoms,  both  of  the  Israelites^  and  of  other  nations, 
without  at  all  explaining  them ;  and,  it  is  only  by  ac- 
counts of  these  customs,  that  the  passages  which  ccjn- 
tain  such  allusions,  can  be  rendered  intelligible. 

Exod.  viii.  26.  **  Shall  we  sacrifice  the  abomination  of  tlie 
Egyptians  ?''  what  they  thought  it  impious  to  sacrifice,  and 
would  have  resented,  heifers,  rams,  goals,  &c.  Herodot. 
1.  2.  c.  41,42,45,65. 

Warburt.  Div.  Leg.  b.  4.  s.  3. 

Isa.  xlvii.  2.  "  Take  the  millstones  and  grind  meal ;"  a  strong 
metaphor ;  grinding  was  the  work  of  slaves ;  in  the  east,  of 
female  slaves,  low,  severe. 
Lowth  in  loc. 

1  Cor.  iv.  9.  "  The  apostles  set  forth  last,  as  it  were  appointed 
to  death.'*  This  alludes  to  the  shows,  the  last  of  which  was, 
persons  combating  with  wild  beasts ;  and  this  the  most  danger 
ous,  and  appointed  to  the  greatest  criminals.  **  The  apostles 
most  hated,  and  exposed  to  the  most  imminent  danger  of 
death.' 

Grotius,  Locke,  and  Macknight  in  loc.    Benson,  Hist,  of 
Christ. 

There  are  frequent  allusions  to  the  Grecian  games.  1  Thess. 
ii.  19.  to  the  victor  crowned  by  the  judge,  at  the  end  of  the 
course.  1  Cor.  ix.  24 — 27.  to  the  crown,  and  to  the  strict 
i^bstinence  by  which  the  competitors  prepared  themselves,  in 
the  Isthmian  games,  near  Corinth.  2  Tim.  ii.  5.  "  strive 
lawfully,"  according  to  the  rules  prescribed,  viz,  contend- 
ing naked,  an  image  of  being  divested  of  love  to  the  world. 
Ch.  iv.  7,  8.  to  two  of  the  exercises,  boxing  and  running, 
and  to  the  manner  of  crowning  the  victor.  Phil.  iii.  13.  14. 
to  running,  the  goal,  and  the  suspended  crown.  Heb.  xii. 
1,  2,  to  many  particulars.  Acts  xiii.  1.  "Manaen  cwrpo- 
<pei  'U^oioa.  It  alludes  to  princes  educating,  at  their  own 
expense,  companions,  along  with  their  sons.  Polyb.  Plu- 
tarcht 

Raphel.  Benson,  and  Macknight,  in  loc. 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS. 


163 


539.  There  are  passages  of  Scripture,  in  which 
customs  and  manners  are  expressly  mentioned,  and  in 
part  described  ;  but  which  receive  further  light  from  a 
more  particular  description  of  these. 

Gen.  1.  2.  3.  The  embalming  of  Jacob,  alludes  to  several  E- 
gyptian  customs.  They  had  many  physicians ;  one  for  every 
disease,  (Herod.  1.  S.  c.  84.)  After  laying  a  body  in  nitre 
for  SO  days,  it  was  anointed  and  seasoned  with  spices  40  days  ; 
this  last  was  the  proper  embalming.  The  mourning  continu- 
ed all  the  time  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  embalmer,  ("Herod, 
ib.  c.  85.  86.  Diod.  Sic.  1.  !•)  that  is,  70  days. 
Warburt.  Div.  Leg.  b.  4.  s.  3. 

Acts  xiv.  18.  Garlands,  either  ("Grot,  in  loc.)  to  crown  the 
apostles  as  gods ;  which  was  customary,  ("Pausan.  Dionys. 
Hal.;  or,  on  the  heads  of  the  oxen,  the  victims  ;  which  was 
likewise  customary.     Lucian.     The  Jewish  custom  of  read- 

'  ing  the  Scripture  weekly,  in  the  synagogues,  is  often  alluded 
to.  Acts  XV.  21.  "  Moses  ;"  the  law  alone  read  most  an- 
ciently, ch,  xiii.  15.  "  Law  and  prophets  ;"  only  these 
ever  read.  Luke  iv.  16.  Jesus  reading  at  Nazareth,  was 
by  the  appointment  of  the  directors  ;  the  50th  haphtharoth 
of  the  prophets,  which  he  read,  was  the  lesson  of  the  day ; 
and  fixes  the  time  to  about  the  beginning  of  September. 
It  was  customary,  also,  to  have  discourses  by  desire,  or 
permission  ;  v.  20.  &c.  Mat.  xiii.  54.  Mark.  i.  21.  Acts  xiii. 
15,  &c.  xiv.  1.  &c. 

Macknight.     Benson  in  loc.    Lardner,  Credib.     Beau- 
sobre,  Introd. 

Excommunication  is  often  mentioned  ;  Ezra,  x.  7,  8.  Neh. 
xiii.  25.  John  ix.  22.  xvi.  2.  It  is  explained  by  accounts  of 
its  nature  and  kinds.  1.  Private  reproof,  confinement  to 
home  for  seven  days.  3.  Niddui,  removal  four  cubits  from 
the  synagogue  and  society.  3.  Shematta,  perpetual  exclu- 
sion from  the  synagogue ;  and  this  generally  meant  in  the 
New  Testament.  Alluded  to.  Mat.  xviii.  15—18.  John 
xii.  42.  Rom.  xvi.  17.  1  Cor.  v.  1.  2.  2  Gor.  ii.  6,  7. 
2  Thess.  iii.  10.    Tit.  iii.  10.    2  John  10. 


164  CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS. 

Beausobre,  Introd. 
Acts  xii.  6,  7.  xxi.  33.  "  Two   chains  ;*'  it  was  the  Roman 
manner  to  chain  a  prisoner  to  two  soldiers,  his  keepers. 
Benson  in  loc.    Lardner,  Credib.  p.  1.  b.  1.  c.  10. 
Mat.  X.  9.  10.  Ep  ^muti  "  girdles ;"  this  was  the  manner  of 
carrying  a  large  sum.     ntj^uv,  "  scrip,"  a  large  bag  for  hold* 
ing  provisions ; — "  take  not  a  great  quantity." 

540.  There  are  facts  related  in  Scripture,  the  rea- 
son, or  propriety  of  which,  arises  from  certain  cus- 
toms, or  manners,  and  is  discovered  by  just  accounts 
of  them. 
Mat.  iii.  4.  John  ate  uKpih?,  not  "  buds  of  trees,"  which  is  a 
rare  sense  of  the  word,  but  "  locusts  ;"  they  were  permit- 
ted to  be  eaten.  Lev.  xi.  22.  and  were  common  food  in  tlie 
East. 
Plin. 
Mat.  ix.  23.  "  Minstrels  and  noise ;"  the  manner  of  mourning 

for  the  dead. 
Mat.  xi.  17.  "  Piped,  not  danced ;  mourned,  not  lamented ;" 
the  same  ;  and  also  the  manner  at  feasts.  Both  were  imitat- 
ed by  children  in  their  games ;  hence  they  became  a  pro- 
verb;  very  apposite  here.  Of  old,  and  in  the  East  still, 
inns  are  not  for  entertaining,  but  only  for  lodging.  Many 
texts  have  a  reference  to  this.  Judg.  xix.  19.  Mat.  xv.  32. 
Luke  X.  33,  &c. 
2  Cor.  xi.  24. «'  Forty  stripes  save  one.'*  Deut.  xxv.  3.  forbad 
exceeding  40  ;  the  Rabbies  had  decided  for  39 ;  the  manner 
of  scourging  with  three  thongs  confined  it  to  this  number^ 


CHRONOLOGY.  165 


SECT.  IV. 


Of  Chronology* 

541.  Chronology  as  distinguished  from  history,  is 
employed  in  ascertaining  the  dates,  and  the  order  of 
events, 

542.  Time  is  very  naturally  distinguished  into  dif- 
ferent periods,  terminated  by  remarkable  events ;  and 
several  such  being  clearly  pointed  out  in  Scripture^ 
they  fix  the  proper  division  of  sacred  chronology. 

543.  The  chronology  of  the  first  great  period,  from 
the  creation  to  the  deluge,  can  be  gathered  only  from 
the  Scripture  itself ;  which,  however,  gives  no  other 
marks  of  time,  but  the  age  of  each  pati'iarch  at  the 
birth  of  his  eldest  son,  and  the  duration  of  his  life ; 
but  from  these  it  might  be  exactly  fixed,  were  it  not 
that  the  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  and  70  version,  differ 
from  one  another  in  some  particulars  ;  with  respect  to 
which,  though  the  two  former,  agreeing  most  nearly, 
would  seem  to  deserve  the  preference,  strong  argu- 
ments are  produced  in  proof  of  their  being  corrupted, 
and  of  the  last  giving  the  true  numbers. 

Usser.  Capell.  Chronol.  Sacr.  Wall's  Notes.  Universal  Hist, 
b.  1.  c.  1.  s.  3.  Pearson,  Epist.  ad  Bernard,  in  Sprott. 
Chron.  Jackson's  Chronol.  Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  30,  73 — 7^^ 
81--83,  91,  93.    Playfair's  Chronol. 


166  CHRONOLOGY. 

544.  In  the  second  period,  from  the  deluge  to  the 
calling  of  Abrahara,  the  chronology  can  be  learned 
only  from  the  Scriptures.  In  it,  too,  the  Hebrew, 
Samaritan,  and  70,  differ  very  widely  ;  and  the  two 
last,  which  make  the  number  of  years  more  than 
double  the  first,  appear  to  deserve  the  preference,  not 
only  on  account  of  their  near  agreement,  but  also,  as 
best  suiting  the  series  of  events,  and  the  populousness 
of  nations,  as  represented  in  the  history. 

Usser.  Capell.  Wall.  Pearson,  Jackson,  Playfair,  Ken.  ib. 

545.  The  third  period  extends  from  the  calling  of 
Abraham  to  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt ;  and  its  chronology  is  clearly  enough  deter- 
mined from  Scripture,  all  the  copies  agreeing  in  it. 

546.  The  fourth  period,  commencing  at  that  deliv- 
erance, is  extended  by  some  to  the  beginning  of  the 
regal  government,  by  SauPs  advancement  to  the 
throne,  or  to  the  death  of  Samuel,  the  last  of  the 
Judges ;  by  others,  to  the  building  of  Solomon's  tem- 
ple ;  and  its  chronology,  too,  is  to  be  settled  chiefly 
from  the  Scripture. 

547.  The  fifth  period  may  reach  to  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  the  Babylonian  captivity ;  and,  in  it, 
the  chronology  may  receive  considerable  light  from 
profane  history. 

548.  The  sixth  reaches  to  the  birth  of  Christ ;  and 
is  to  be  collected  almost .  wholly  from  other  writers, 
the  sacred  giving  very  few  hints  concerning  it. 


GEOGRAPHY.  167 

549.  The  Chronology  posterior  to  the  birth  of 
Christ,  is,  in  general,  clearly  established  ;  but  a  very 
small  part  of  it  falls  within  the  compass  of  the  Scrip- 
ture history. 

550.  The  primary  use  of  chronology,  in  Scripture 
criticism,  is  to  shew  the  order  and  connexion  of  the 
several  events  recorded  in  the  historical  parts  of  the 
Bible. 

551.  But  chronology  is,  likewise,  of  very  great 
importance  for  ascertaining  the  accomplishment  of 
many  of  the  prophecies. 

552.  Chronology  sometimes  leads  to  the  discovery 
and  correction  of  mistakes  in  numbers  and  dates, 
which  have  crept  into  particular  texts. 


SECT.  V. 


Of  Geography, 

653.  Geography,  which  gives  an  account  of  the 
situations  of  places,  their  several  names,  the  nature  of 
their  climate,  soil,  and  the  like,  is  often  a  mean  of 
throwing  light  on  Scripture. 

Well's  Hist.  Geograph.  of  the  O.  and  N.  T. 

554.  The  geography  of  Canaan  is  of  great  impor- 
tance, as  it  was  the  theatre  of  almost  the  whole  that  is 
recorded  in  Scripture  5    it  has  therefore,  justly  been 


168  GEOGRAPHY. 

the  object  of  particular  attention  ;  and  every  particu- 
lar of  it  that  can  be  ascertained,  illustrates  some  text 
or  removes  some  difficulty. 

Bethsaida  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Gospels  ;  it  is  generally 
placed  near  Tiberias,  west  of  the  lake  of  Genezareth.  But 
it  lay  on  its  north-east  shore,  beyond  Jordan.  John  xii.  21. 
"  Bethsaida  of  Galilee  ;"  not  properly,  but  Gaulonites  often 
comprehended  under  it.  (Mat.  iv.  IS,  14,  15.  Joseph.  Ant. 
1.  20.  c.  3.)  Luke  ix  10.  "  went  aside  to  Bethsaida,"  from 
Herod,  into  Philip's  dominions.  Mark  \i  45.  "  to  go  to  the 
other  side  to  Bethsaida,"  not  to  the  other  side  of  tlie  lake ; 
but  of  a  creek  or  bay. 
Macknight,  §  60,  61. 

555.  But,  as  many  other  countries  are  mentioned 
in  Scripture,  or  are  the  scenes  of  events  related  there, 
the  geography  of  these  likewise,  is  of  considerable  use 
for  throwing  light  upon  it. 

WelPs  Geogr. 
mD  is  often  mentioned  in  Scripture  ;  by  many  supposed  Ethio- 
pia, (Vulg.  Genev,  Engl.)  but  this  is  a  wrong  supposition. 
It  was  Arabia  Petr^a,  or  a  part  of  it.  Num.  xii.  1.  «  Mo- 
ses's wife  was  a  Cushite,"  but  she  was  from  Midian,  (Exod.  ii. 
16.  &c.)  which  was  a  town  in  Arabia,  (Joseph.  Ptolom, 
Jerom.)  either  in  the  territory  of  Cush,  or  contiguous  to  it, 
(Habak.  iii.  7.)  It  was  near  to  Judea ;  therefore,  2  Kings  xix. 
9.  its  king  might  attack  the  Assyrians  besieging  Libnah ; 
2  Chron.  xiv.  9.  might  attack  Asa,  king  of  Judah  ;  ch.  xxi. 
16.  it  was  near  the  Arabians ;  Isa.  xx.  3,  4,  5,  might  enter 
into  alliance  with  Judah.  It  lay  northeast  of  Egypt ;  there- 
fore, Isa.  xviii.  1.  Egypt  is  properly  described  as  "  beyond 
the  rivers  of  Cush."  Ezek.  xxix.  10.  "  from  Syene  (south) 
to  the  borders  of  Cush,"  (north-east,)  signifies  the  whole  ex- 
tent of  Egypt;  ch.  xxx.  9.  ''flying  Egyptians  might  easily 
go  in  ships  (across  the  Red  Sea)  to  Cush." 

Essay  for  New  Translation,  p.  2.  c.  1.  §  6.     Well's  Geogr. 
0.  T,  V.  1.  c.  3.  s.  4.  §  4,  5. 


GEOGRAPHY.  169 

556.  By  preserving  the  ancient  names  of  places, 
tribes,  or  nations,  geography  assists  us  in  determining 
the  meaning  of  the  proper  names  employed  in  Scrip- 
ture, which  are  often  different  from  those  which  are 
used  by  other  WTiters. 

Wells,  O.T  V.  I.e.  I. 

Chittim,  the  countries  and  islands  about  the  Mediterranean. 
This  is  confirnied  :  "  Cetii,"  a  people,  and  "Cetium,*"  a 
river  in  Lesser  Asia  (Homer.  Strabo.)  "i  ittium,"  a  town 
in  Cyprus,  which  was  called  also,  "  Chethiina,"  and  its  inhab- 
itants "  Chethim,"  (Joseph.) 

Macedonia,  anciently  called  "  Macettia,"  and  by  the  Latins 
"Cetii." 

Newton  on  Proph.     Wells,  0.  T.  v.  1.  c.  3.  s.  2.  §  21,   &c. 

557.  It  is,  in  some  cases,  absolutely  necessary,  and 
in  all  cases,  very  useful,  for  our  understanding  the 
Scripture  history,  to  be  acquainted  with  the  geogra- 
phy of  the  places  where  the  scene  lies. 

558.  Geography  shews  the  meaning,  the  justness, 
and  propriety  of  expressions,  used  by  the  sacred  wri- 
ters, in  describing,  or  speaking  of  places  which  they 
mention. 

John  iii.  2,  3.  "Nineveh,  a  great  city — exceeding  great," 
greater  than  Babylon,  (Strab.  1.  16.)  the  greatest  of  all  cities, 
(Diodor.  Sicul.  1.  2.) — "  Of  three  days' journey,"  at  20  miles 
a-day,  being  480  furlongs  above  60  miles,  in  circumference, 
(Diod  ib.)  ch.  iv.  11,  "More  than  six  score  thousand" 
children.  This,  by  some  calculations,  makes  about  4i  0,')00, 
by  others,  600,000  inhabitants.  But  the  city  was  about 
20  miles  long,  and  12  broad,  (Diod.  ib.)  and  st(»od  on  four 
times  as  much  ground  as  Paris,  which  is  computed  at  700,000 
or  London,  computed  at  800,000  inhabitants ;  therefore, 
there  was  full  room  for  them. — "  And  also  much  cattle," 

22 


170  GEOGRAPHY. 

there  being  in  the  eastern  cities  large  spaces  for  gardens  and 
pasture. 

Newton  on  proph.  Diss.  9.  Wells,  ib.  c.  5.  §  19,  &c. 
Isa.  xxi.  1  Babylon  is  called  "  the  desert  (or  plain)  of  the 
sea."  It  was  situate  in  a  plain  always  surrounded  by  wa- 
ters ;  but  of  old  covered  with  water,  and  called  the  ^ea, 
till  drained  by  Semirainis,  (Herod.  1.  1.  c.  184  Abyden. 
ap.  Euseb.  Prfep.  Evan.  1.  9.  c.  41.)  and  became  so  again 
after  being  taken  by  Cyrus,  and  still  continues;  which, 
probably,  is  intimated  here. 

Lovvth's  Isa.  in  loc.     Newton  on  Proph. 
Isa.   xlv.  2.  Babylon's  "gates  of  fcrns.s."      It  had    100  such, 
besides  others  within  the  city.      (Abyd.  ib.      Herod,  ib.   c. 
179,  180,   181.) 

Lowth  in  loc      Newton,  ib. 
Jer.  li.  58.  "  The  broad  walls  of  Babylon."      They  were  87 
feet  broad,  (Herod,  ib.)  and  could  contain  six  chariots  abreast, 
(l)iod.  Sic.  1.  2.) 

Wells,  ib.  c.  3.  §  4. 

559.  Knowledge  of  the  several  particulars  which  be- 
long to  the  description  of  countries,  shows  the  import 
and  force  of  such  sentiments  as  are  expressed  in  allu- 
sion to  them. 

Job  xxviii.   19.  "The  topaz  of  Cush."      Not  Ethiopia,   for  it 
produces  none  ;    but  first  discovered  in  Chitis,  an  Arabian 
island,  (Pliny)  and  the  name  Arabic. 
Scliultens  in  loc. 


STATURAL  HISTORY.  171 


SECT.  VI. 


Of  Natural  History, 

560.  Natural  History  comprehends  accounts  of 
the  quiJities  of  all  the  kinds  of  natural  bodies  ;  and,  in 
general,  all  facts  which  fall  not  with  entire  propriety 
under  any  of  the  heads  already  mentioned  ;  and  it 
contributes^  in  many  instances,  to  the  illustration,  of 
Scripture. 

561.  The  Scripture  sometimes  professedly  mentions, 
or  in  part  describes,  particular  bodies ;  and  it  is  only 
by  means  of  natural  history,  that  the  sense  of  these 
passages  can  be  truly  ascertained. 

2  Kinfj-g  vi.  25.  The  famine  was  so  o;reat,  that  the  besieged 
bought  at  a  high  price  LD'jmn  (Keri  IZ3'jr3"()  "doves 
dung."  This  would  have  been  a  strange  fond,  and  there  are 
many  fancies  about  it.  But  the  name  is  given  by  the  Ara- 
bians toakind  of  pulse,  or  peas,  which  is  used  stiil  fried,  both 
in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  and  carried  as  provisions  by  the  pil- 
grims to  Mecca. 

Essay  for  New  Translat.  p.  2.  c.  1.  §  2. 

♦ 

562.  Sometimes  the  Scripture  expresses  sentiments 

in  allusion  to,  or  by  metaphors  taken  from,  some  fact 

in  natural  history,  the  knowledge  of  which  only  can 

show  the  import  or  propriety  of  these  sentiments. 

Job  xxxvii,  22  "Out  of  the  north  cometh  :3nT,  (literally) 
^old  "  It  is  generally  taken  figuratively,  but  very  ditTerent- 
ly.     Eng.  "  fair  weather."     If  the  word  here  mean  "gold,-' 


172  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

whence  did  it  come  ?  It  abounded  in  Colchis,  (Strab.  1.  10. 
Appian.)  which  lay  almost  directly  north  from  Palestine  and 
Arabia. 

Schultens  in  loc.     Reland. 

563.  Sometimes  the  Scripture  describes  characters 
in  allusion  to  some  of  the  objects  of  natural  history  ; 
and  without  the  knowledge  of  these,  we  cannot  per- 
ceive the  nature  of  the  characters  meant. 

Gen.  xvi.  12.  "  Ishmael  will  be  «^3  a  wild  ass  man."  The 
wild  ass  is  described,  Job.  xxxix.  5,  &c.  fierce,  ranging,  un- 
tameable.  Ishmael  was  such,  (Gen.  xxi.  20.)  and  such  his 
posterity  all  along,  isa.  xxi.  17.  Virgil,  Georg.  2  v.  448. 
Lucan,  1.  7,  v.  230.  Harris's  Voyag.  vol.  2.  b.  2.  c.  9. 

Bochart.  Hieroz.  p.  1. 1.  3.  c.  16.    Cleric,  in  loc.    Newtoa 
on  Proph,  Diss.  2. 


-LEARNING  173 


CHAP.  VIII. 


Opinions  and  Learning, 

564.  There  are  many  opinions,  of  different  sorts, 
the  knowledge  of  which  will  contribute  much  to  the 
illustration  of  Scripture ;  particularly  those  of  the 
Hebrews,  and  those  of  ancient  nations. 

665.  There  are,  likewise,  some  parts  of  learning  not 
properly  reducible  to  the  opinions  of  nations,  which 
are  subservient  to  the  same  purpose. 

566.  The  religious  opinions  of  ancient  idolaters, 
their  philosophy,  the  Jewish  sects,  prevailing  opinions 
and  writings.  Christian  writers  ancient  and  modern, 
and  Pagan  writers — all  demand  some  attention  under 
this  head. 


SECT.  I. 


Of  the  Religious  Opinions  of  Ancient  Nations. 

567.  The  Israelites  were  surrounded  by,  and  at 
times  connected  with,  the  Egyptians,  the  Canaanitish 
tribes,  the  Assyrians,  the  Persians,  and  other  idola- 


174  RELIGIOUS  OPINIONS. 

trous  nations  ;  the  knowledge  of  whose  religion  helps 
sometimes  to  illustrate  passages  of  Scripture. 

568.  Their  religious  opinions,  their  rites  of  worship 
founded  on  these,  tlieir  secret  worship,  or  mysteries, 
their  magical  notions  and  ceremonies,  are  points,  the 
knowledge  of  which  has  some  utility. 

569.  To  these,  several  incidents  in  the  Scripture 
have'a  reference;  and,  therefore,  are  best  explained 
by  them.  * 

Num  xxii.  6,  17.  Balak  sent  two  embassies  to  Balaam  ;  great 
anxiety  for  Balaam's  cursing  [srael,  appears  through  the 
whole  history.  This  was  founded  on  the  universal  opinion 
of  the  efficacy  of  devoting  an  enemy.  The  Romans  had  pub- 
lic officers  for  the  purpose,  and  a  set  form  of  execration. 
(Macrob.  Sat.  1.  3.  c  9.) 
Newton  on  Proph.  Diss.  5. 

570.  Many  of  the  ceremonial  laws  of  the  Hebrews 
have  a  reference  lo  the  idolatrous  opinions  of  the 
neighbouring  nations,  and  their  corresponding  rites, 
being  given  in  opposition  to  them ;  and,  therefore, 
derive  light  from  the  knowledge  of  them. 

Exod.  xii.  The  passover  was  a  memorial  of  the  deliverance  of 
the  Israelites.  But  many  circumstances  of  it  were  appointed 
in  opposition  to  Egyptian  superstitions.  Among  them,  "a 
lamb,  or  kid,"  was  not  sacrificed,  but  venerated.  "  A 
male,"  was  worshipped  as  a  symbol  of  Hammon  ;  female 
sacrifices  were  always  preferred.  "  Eat  no  part  raw,"  as 
was  usual  in  solemn  festivals:  "  Not  carried  forth,"  as  was 
also  usual :  *  No  bone  broken,"  as  pulled  asunder  in  enthu' 
siasm:  "Not  sodden,*' as  in  solenni  and  magical  rites: 
"  Roasted  with  fire,"  not  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  :  "  To  be 
eaten  with  its  purtenance,"  the  intestines,  which  were  reserv- 


RELIGIOUS  OPINIONS.  175 

ed  for  divination  :  "  No  part  to  remain,  but  the  fragments  to 
be  burnt,"  which  were  usually  kept  for  charms  and  supersti- 
tious pui  poses. 

Spencer  de  Leg.  Heb.  1,  2.  c.  4. 
Num.  xix.  ^~.  &c.    "  A  heifer,**  worshipped  as  sacred  to  Isis. 
*•  Red,"  most  adored. 

Spencer,  ib. 

571.  In  particular,  the  knowledge  of  the  religious 
opinions  and  ceremonies  of  idolatrous  nations,  often 
shows  the  meaning  of  Jewish  laws,  given  in  reference 
and  opposition  to  them,  which  would,  otherwise,  be 
obscure,  or  imperfectly  understood. 

Lev.  xix.  29.  "  Do  not  prostitute  they  daughter."  Deut.  xxiii. 
17.  "  There  shall  be  no  whore — nor  a  Sodomite  "  Not 
prohibitions  of  these  crimes  in  general,  but  under  pretence  of 
religion  ;  these  were  common  in  the  worship  of  some  gods  and 
were  reckoned  acceptable  to  them. 

Spencer,  ib.  c.  22. 

572.  The  knowledge  of  such  opinions  and  ceremo- 
nies, shows  the  utility,  or  importance  of  laws  given  in 
contradiction  to  them,  which  would  otherwise  appear 
trivial. 

The  law,  "  Thou  shalt  not  seethe  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk," 
seems  trivial;  yet  it  is  repeated,  Exod.  xxiii.  19.  xxxiv.  26, 
Deut.  xiv.  21.  An  idolatrous  and  magical  rite  for  fertiliz- 
ing. 

Spencer,  ib.  c.  8. 

Deut.  xxii.  5.  "Men  wearing  women's  clothes,  or  women 
men's,  an  abomination  ;"  a  rite  universally  prevalent,  from 
the  opinion  of  a  difference  of  sex  in  the  gods,  and  tending  to 
impurity. 


176  RELIGIOUS  OPINIONS. 

573.  The  knowledge  of  such  opinions  and  ceremo- 
nies, shows  the  reason  of  laws  given  in  opposition  to 
them,  which  would  otherwise  appear  to  be  arbitrary, 
or  unnecessary. 

Lev.  ii.  11.  "  Offer  no  leaven,  nor  honey,"  in  opposition  to 
gross  ideas  of  the  gods,  as  pleased  vv^ith  delicacies ;  honey 
was  offered  to  the  infernal  and  the  hero  gods. 

574.  There  are,  in  Scripture,  frequent  allusions  to 
the  opinions  and  worship  of  the  idolatrous  nations, 
which  cannot  be  understood  without  the  knowledge  of 
these. 

Psal.  xvi.  4.  "Drink-offerings  of  blood."  A  principal  cere- 
mony is  here  put  for  the  whole  of  idolatry  ;  in  opposition  to 
which,  the  law  was  given  for  pouring  out  the  blood  of  sacri- 
fices, and  for  the  prohibition  of  eating  blood. 

Jer.  ^liv.  17,  18.  Worshipping  "  the  queen  of  heaven,"  the 
moon,  as  the  means  of  procuring  "  plenty."  It  was  the 
opinion  of  all,  that  plenty  was  procured  by  care  in  worship- 
ping demons  ;  and  this  opinion  was  imbibed  by  the  Israelites. 

Isa.  xlv.  6,  7.      "  I  form  light,  and — darkness, — peace,  and — 
evil."     It  alludes  to  the  Magian  tenet  of  two  principles,  a 
good  and  an  evil.     Both  are  but  the  creatures  of  Jehovah. 
Lowth  in  loc. 

Ver.    19.    "Not    spoken    in   secret — or  dark  place — declare 
righteousness  (truth)  things  that  are  right  (give  direct  an- 
swers ;'")  in  opposition  to  heathen  oracles,  which  were  given 
from  caverns,  and  were  ambiguous. 
Lowth  in  loc. 


PHILOSOPHY.  177 


SECT.  II. 


Of  Ancient  Learning  and  Philosophy. 

575,  The  Egyptians  were  very  early  eminent  for 
their  learning  and  wisdom  ;  there  are  references  to  it 
in  Scripture  ;    and  these  derive  light  from   what  is 
known  concerning  it. 
Diod.  Sic.  1.  1.     Herod.  1.  2.    Strab.  1.  16.  17.    Macrob.  Somn. 
Scip.  and  Saturn.  Diog.  Laert.    Plinj,  Hist.  Nat.     Burnett 
Archaeol.  1.  i.  Wotton  on  anc.  and  mod.  learning.   Warburt. 
Div.  Leg.    Univers.  Hist.  b.  1.  c.  3.  s.  2. 
1  Kings  iv.  30.    "Solomon's  wisdom  excelled  the  wisdom  of 
Egypt."     Acts  vii.  22.  "  Moses  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of 
the  Egyptians." 

676.  There  are  other  eastern  nations,  likewise,  who 
had  learning  and  sciences,  to  which  there  are  refer- 
ences in  Scripture. 

1  Kings  iv.  30.  "  the  wisdom  of  the  east  country." 

577.  There  was  a  species  of  philosophy,  supposed 
to  have  taken  its  rise  in  Egypt,  and,  therefore,  called 
the  Egyptian,  which  prevailed,  in  respect  of  its  gen- 
eral principles,  though  with  many  differences  as  to 
particular  tenets,  in  Syria,  Chaldea,  and  Persia,  and 
thence  called  the  Oriental. 

Mosheim.  Hist.  Eccl.  Seec.  1.    Michael.  §  100,  &c. 

578.  Its  speculations  gave  rise  to  some  of  the  reli- 
gious opinions  and  rites  of  the  nations  addicted  to  it^ 

2-3 


178  PHILOSOPHY. 

which  were  imitated  by  the  Israelites,  and  are  referred 
to  in  Scripture  ;    and  will  assist  in  the  explication  of 
such  passages. 
Michael,  ib. 

Isa.  Ixvi.  17.  "  That  sanctify  themselves  "jinD  nnx  "^nx  behind 
one  in  the  midst."  The  supreme  God  was  called  One,  and 
never  appeared  bnt  surrounded  with  many  ^ons,  or  inferior 
spirits,  who  were  to  be  worshipped  along  with  him.  (Michael. 
§  100.)  But  there  are  also  other  interpretations. 
Lowth  in  loc. 

579.  The  Jews  adopted  many  of  the  speculations 
of  this  philosophy,  accommodated  them  to  their  own 
religious  principles,  and,  by  the  combination,  formed 
several  tenets,  particularly  fables  and  genealogies  of 
angels,  to  which  there  are  references  in  Scripture  ; 
and  it  is  from  the  nature  of  such  speculations,  that  the 
passages  which  refer  to  these  are  to  be  explained. 

580.  Many  who  were  addicted  to  the  Oriental  phi- 
losophy, having  embraced  Christianity,  intermixed  the 
tenets  of  the  former  with  the  doctrines  of  the  latter, 
and  introduced  strange  notions,  by  means  of  the  mix- 
ture, so  early,  that  there  are  references  to  them  in  the 
New  Testament. 

Mosheim,  Hist.  Eccl.  ssec.  1.     Michael.  §  101.    Macknight, 
Pref.  to  1  John. 

581.  The  sects  of  this  kind,  called,  by  a  general 
name,  Gnostics,  professed  speculative  opinions,  which 
are  opposed  in  some  passages  of  Scripture,  and  which 
must  be  known,  in  order  to  our  understanding  these 
passages. 


PHILOSOPHY.  179 

Mosheim.  ib.    Michael,  ib.     Macknight,  ib. 
John  i.  1 — 18.  has  a  reference  to,  and  opposes,  the  opinions  of 
the  Gnostics,  particularly  Cerinthus.      Jesus  is  called  Aoyaj 
ftovoysvt)^,  <peiqy  ^ain,  zp"^"^^^)  &c.  in  opposition  to  these  being 
different  seons  of  unequal  dignity. 
Michael.  §  102. 
1  John  i.  1,  2,  7.  ii.  22,  23.  iv.  2,  3,  9, 14,  15.  v.  1,  5,  9,  10,  11, 
12,  13,  20.  opposed  to  several  of  their  tenets. 
Michael.  §  150. 

582.  By  different  ways  of  reasoning  from  the  same 
speculative  principles,  some  of  the  Gnostical  sects  de- 
duced a  loose  morality,  and  others  imposed  unreason- 
able austerities ;  to  both  which  there  are  passages  of 
Scripture  that  have  reference. 

Mosheim,  ib.    Macknight,  ib. 

1  John  i.  5,  6,  7.  ii.  3 — 6.  against  placing  religion  in  subtile 

knowledge,  not  practice. 
Ch.  iii.  4 — 10.  v.  18,  21.  against  the  indifference  of  all  actions, 

and  the  lawfulness  of  sensual  impurities. 
Rev.  ii.  6.  "  Deeds  of  the  Nicolaitans." 

583.  The  ancient  Israelites  having  had  no  inter- 
course with  the  Greeks,  there  can  appear  no  traces  of 
their  philosophy  in  the  Old  Testament ;  but,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  later  intercourse,  both  of  the  Jews,  and 
of  the  apostles,  with  those  who  studied  that  philoso- 
phy, there  are  some  references  to  it  in  the  New. 

Beausobre,  Intr. 

584.  There  are  some  passages  which  allude  to  the 
manner  of  philosophizing ;  and  which  receive  light 
from  the  knowledge  of  that  manner. 


180  PHILOSOPHY. 

1  Cor.  i.  25,  23.  «  The  Greeks  seek  <ro^/«y,"  subtle  disquisitions 
and  argumentation. 

585.  The  Greek  philosophers  were  divided  into 
many  sects,  some  of  which  are  mentioned^  and  some 
of  their  tenets  hinted  at,  in  Scripture. 

Acts  xvii.  18.  "Epicurean  and  Stoics."  v.  24,  25.  God  is 
described,  in  opposition  to  both,  neither  an  idle  being  of  hu- 
man shape,  nor  a  mere  soul  of  the  world,  v.  26,  SO.  "  the 
providence  of  God,"  not  chance,  nor  fate.  v.  27,  28,  29. 
"God  not  far  from  us— in  him  we  live,  &c. — his  offspring;" 
terms  agreeable  to  the  Stoics,  contradictory  to  the  Epicure- 
ans. V.  31.  "  Judgment ;"  the  one  doubted  of  a  retribution, 
the  other  denied  any  future  state,  v.  32.  "  some  mocked ;" 
the  Epicureans.  "  Others  said,  We  will  hear  thee  again." 
The  Stoics  had  some  notions  of  a  conflagration,  and  a  reno- 
vation of  things. 

586.  There   are,   in   Scripture,   hints   of  opinions 
commonly  received  in  the  Greek  philosophy. 

1  Thess.  V.  23.  llvsvfAoc,  -^vx^),  a-a^cet;  the  constituent  parts  of 
man  in  the  opinion  of  almost  all  sects.  This  opinion  was 
familiar  to  the  Thessalonians. 

Critici,  Benson,  Chandler,  Macknight  in  loc. 


SECT.  III. 


Of  the  Jewish  Sects  and  Parties, 

587.  After  the  captivity,  the  Jews,  from  being  ob- 
liged to  use  literal  translations  of  the  Scriptures,  were 
led,  gradually,  to  comment  upon  them ;  which,  giv- 


JEWISH  SECTS.  181 

ing  occasion  to  differences  of  opinion,  produced  dif- 
ferent sects  among  them,  distinguished  both  by  their 
opinions  and  their  practices. 

Lightfoot,  in  Mat.  iii.  7.  §  S.     Cunee,  Rep.  Heb.  1.  2.  c.  XT'. 
Beausobre,  Intr. 

588.  The  Jewish  sects  were,  principally,  three  ;  the 
Pharisees,  the  Saducees,  both  of  whom  are  often  ex- 
pressly mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  and  the  Es- 
senes,  who  are  never  mentioned  there,  but  to  whose 
tents  there  are  probably  some  allusions. 

Lightfoot.     Cunee.  ib. 

589.  The  Pharisees  were  the  most  considerable 
sect,  both  for  numbers  and  for  influence  ;  but,  though 
the  multitude  followed  them,  that  title  was  confined 
to  men  of  leisure,  rank,  and  fortune. 

Lightfoot,  ib.  §  2.     Beausobre,  ib. 

590.  The  Pharisees  acknowledged  a  twofold  sense 
in  Scripture,  the  literal  and  the  hidden ;  but  princi- 
pally regarded  the  latter ;  and,  in  giving  it,  indulged 
themselves  very  much  in  allegories. 

591.  They  received  not  only  the  written  law,  or 
the  Scriptures,  but  also  the  unwritten,  consisting  of 
traditions,  supposed  to  have  been  conveyed  orally  by 
their  fathers,  most  of  them  from  Moses ;  reckoned 
these  of  equal  authority  with  the  Scripture ;  and,  by 
these,  explained,  or  perverted  it. 

Lightfoot,  in  Mat.  xv.  2.    Beausobre,  ib. 

Mark  vii.  3. "  Traditions  of  the  elders  ,•"  because  derived  from 
their  ancestors. 


182  JEWISH    SECTS. 

Mat.  xxiii,  4.  Mark  vii.  9,  13.     Luke  xi.  46.  "of  the  Phari- 
sees ;"  because  received  and  inculcated  by  them. 

59S.  Their  traditions  included,  not  only  explications 
of  Scripture,  but  also  institutions  and  ceremonies  re- 
garding practice,  founded  solely  upon  them. 

593.  They  affected  great  exactness  in  explaining 
the  law,  and,  likewise,  in  observing  all  the  ceremonies 
enjoined,  either  by  it,  or  by  their  traditions  ;  and  were 
ostentatious,  hypocritical,  and  superstitious  in  the  ob- 
servance of  them. 

Joseph.  B.  J.  1.  1.  c.  5.     Beausobre,  ib. 

Acts  xxvi.  5.  ecKptSeo-retTjjv  utpecriv,  "the  Strictest,"  exactest, 
most  accurate  "  sect." 

594.  The  Pharasees  believed  the  resurrection,  and 
future  rewards  and  punishments. 

Joseph,  ib.  c.  8.  Beausobre,  ib.     Acts  xxiii.  6,  &c. 

595.  But  most  of  them  believed,  at  the  same  time, 
a  transmigration  of  at  least  some  souls  into  other 
bodies. 

Joseph.    Beausobre,  ib. 

John  ix.  2.  "  Who  did  sin,  this  man,"  in  a  preexistent  state, 
"  or  his  parents,  that  he  was  born  blind?" 

596.  The  Saducees  were  not  so  numerous,  nor  so 
popular,  as  the  Pharisees,  but  very  considerable  for 
their  riches. 

lid.  ib.     Lightfoot  in  Mat.  iii.  7. 

597.  It  is  thought  by  many,  that  the  Saducees 
received  only  the  books  of  Moses  ;  but  others  are  of 
opinion  that  they  acknowledged  the  whole  of  the  Old 
Testament. 


JEWISH  SECTS.  183 

Grot,  in  Mat.  xxii.  23.     Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  18. 
Beausobre,  ib. 

598.  They  admitted  only  the  literal  and  obvious 
sense  of  the  Scriptures^  rejecting  all  mystical  and  al- 
legorical interpretations. 

599.  They  received  only  the  written  law,  and  re- 
jected all  traditions,  with  the  opinions  and  practices 
founded  upon  them. 

Joseph.  Ant.  1.  13,  c  10.  1.  18.  c.  1.    Beausobre,  ib. 

600.  They  believed  no  spirit  but  God,  denying  the 
existence  both  of  angels,  and  of  human  souls  after 
death. 

Beausobre,  ib.     Acts  xxiii.  8.    Mat.  xxii.  23,  &c. 

601.  The  Saducees  were  thus,  both  in  their  prin- 
ciples, and  in  their  practices,  perfectly  opposite  to  the 
Pharisees ;  and  a  continual  rivalship  prevailed  be- 
tween them. 

Joseph.    Beausobre,  ib.    Mat.  xxii.  34.     Acts  xxiii.  7,  &c. 

602.  The  Saducees,  notwithstanding  the  looseness 
of  their  opinions,  were  often  in  the  magistracy  and 
the  priesthood,  and  were  remarkable  for  their  severity 
and  cruelty ;  which  accounts  for  the  bitterness  of  their 
persecution  against  Christians,  whose  doctrine  they 
all  hated,  and  few  of  them  seem  to  have  embraced. 

Joseph.  Ant.  ib.  and  1.  20.  c.  9.    Bel.  Jud.  1.  2.  c.  8.  Beausobre, 
ib.     Acts  iv.  1.    Acts  v.  17,  23,  &c. 

603.  The  Essenes  were  not  very  numerous,  and 
lived  in  retirement,  associating  only  with  one  another ; 


184  JEWISH  SECTS. 

and,  for  that  reason,  probably,  fell  not  in  our  Saviour's 
way. 

'  Joseph.  Bel.  Jud.  1.  2.  c.  T.  Philo.  Mosheim,  Hist.  Eccl.  ssec. 
1.  p.  1.  c.  2.  §  7,  &c.  Lardner,  Cred.  p.  1.  b.  1.  c.  4.  §  5. 
Beausobre,  ib.     Marsh's  Michael,  vol.  4.  ch.  15.  sect.  2.  &c. 

604.  They  rejected  tradition,  receiving  only  the 
Scriptures  ;  but  they  set  no  value  on  the  literal  sense 
of  these,  but  on  a  spiritual  sense,  of  which  they  sup- 
posed that  to  be  only  an  emblem  ;  which  they  carried 
so  far,  as  not  to  offer  any  sacrifices. 

605.  Their  doctrine  was  a  composition  of  the  ori- 
ental Philosophy,  with  the  Jewish  religion ;  and, 
therefore,  in  many  particulars,  bore  a  great  resem- 
blance to  that  of  the  Gnostics  ;  and  was,  perhaps,  the 
immediate  occasion  of  the  rise  of  these  heretics  among 
the  Jewish  converts  ;  and,  on  this  account,  some  pas- 
sages of  the  New  Testament  may  refer  almost  equally 
to  either. 

Michael.  §  122—125,  136. 

Col.  ii.  IS.  GptjTKetct  rm  uyyeXav,  "  worshipping  of  angels." 
The  Essenes  were  curious  about,  and  anxious  to  conceal, 
the  names  of  angels,  and  used  them  as  mediators.  Kxrct^px- 
Severo.  "  deceive  by  subtle  argument,'*  suits  their  specula- 
tions, which  were  common  to  them  with  Gnostics,  and  de- 
rived from  the  same  philosophy. 
Michael,  ib.    Knatchbul.  in  loc. 

606.  The  Essenes,  reckoning  all  matter  evil  and 
impure,  believed  only  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
but  not  the  resurrection  of  the   body,  which,  they 


JEWISH  SECTS.  185 

thought,  is  at  present  the  prison  of  the  soul,  and  by- 
being  reunited  to  it,  would  only  defile  it. 

2  Tim.  ii.   17,  18.  "The  resurrection  past  already.'*      They 
did  not  deny  it,  like  the  Saducees,  but  allegorized  it.      To 
this  they  were  led,  v.  16.  "by  profane  and  vain  babblings," 
the  speculations  and  refinements  of  their  philosophy. 
Michael.  §  144. 

607.  In  consequence  of  the  same  principle  concern- 
ing matter,  they  lived  with  extreme  abstemiousness, 
using  only  water,  and  the  plainest  sorts  of  food,  mor- 
tified the  body  by  severe  austerities,  and  either  for- 
bade marriage  altogether,  or  permitted  no  view  in 
contracting  it,  but  continuing  the  species. 
Philo.    Joseph.     Beausobre. 

1  Tim.  iv.  3 — 8.  "  Forbidding  to  marry,"  as  unlawful.    "  To 
abstain  from  meats,"  excess  of  abstemiousness,  or  supersti- 
tion as  to  sorts.     "  God  hath  created, — every  creature  good, 
nothing  to  be  refused,"  in  opposition  to  the  same  practices, 
and  the  principle  producing  them.      '•  Bodily  exercise,"  all 
their  austerities. 
Col.  ii.  20 — 23.     "  Touch  not,  taste  not,  handle  not."     Max- 
ims of  the  Essenes  and  austere  Gnostics.      **  Doctrines  of 
men,'' human  refinements.      "Neglecting,'*  afflicting  "the 
body,  which  is  in  no  esteem/'  as  being  made  of  evil  matter. 
Knatchb.  in  loc. 
1  Tim.  V.  23.    "  Use  a  little   wine  ;"  contrasted  with  their  no 
tions,  and  insinuates  a  reproof  of  them. 

608.  They  were,  at  once,  a  fanatical  and  supersti- 
tious sect,  placing  religion  in  silence  and  contempla- 
tion, imagining  a  sanctity  and  mysteries  in  numbers, 
rigid  in  their  purifications,  admitted  only  on  a  pro- 
bation, and  distinguished  into  different  orders. 
Philo.  Joseph.  Beausobre. 
24 


186  JEWISH  OPINIONS. 

609.  The  Scribes  and  Lawyers,  whom  some  hare 
reckoned  different,  but  without  sufficient  reason,  were 
not  a  distinct  sect,  but  a  particular  profession,  for 
explaining  the  Scriptures,  either  in  the  synagogues, 
or  in  the  schools ;  and  they  were,  generally  at  least,  of 
the  Pharisees. 

Cameron,  in  Mat.  xxii.  23.      Lightfoot,  in  Mat  ii.  4.     Beau- 

sobre,  ib. 
"  Scribes,"  often  joined  with  "Pharisees,"  because  they  were 

of  that  sect :  and  often  with  "  priests,"  because  many  were 

such,  and  all  their  assistants :  as,  to  them,  explaining  the  law 

origjinally  belonged.     Mat.  ii.  4. 

610.  Proselytes  were  such  persons,  of  other  nations, 
as  had  embraced  the  Jewish  religion ;  and  are,  general- 
ly, reckoned  to  have  been  of  two  sorts ;  proselytes  of 
the  gate,  who  only  embraced  a  part  of  it ;  and  pro- 
selytes of  righteousness,  who  embraced  the  whole  of 
it ;  though  a  few  have  denied  this  distinction. 
Maimon.  de  Proselyt.    Joseph.    Beausobre. 


SECT   IV. 


Of  Jewish  Opinions. 

611.  For  understanding  any  writing,  it  is  of  great 
importance  to  know  the  opinions  of  those  to  whom  it 
is  addressed,  concerning  any  part  of  the  subject  of  it. 

612.  Besides  those  opinions,  which  formed  the  ge- 
neral characteristics  of  the  Jewish  sects,  others  were 


JEWISH  OPINIONS.  187 

eommon  to  them  all,  or,  though  inculcated  chiefly  by 
one  sect,  were  not  opposed  by  the  rest ;  and  there  are 
many  of  these,  the  knowledge  of  which  throws  light 
upon  the  Scriptures. 

613.  Such  of  their  opinions  as  were  truly  derived 
from  the  Scriptures,  were  coincident  with  the  doctrines 
there  taught ;  the  knowledge  of  them  is  the  same  with 
knowledge  of  the  sense  of  the  passages  which  teach 
them  ;  and  explications  of  them  may  contribute  to 
the  interpretation  of  Scripture. 

614.  But  many  of  their  opinions  either  arose  from 
their  perversions  of  Scripture,  or  were  taken  from  the 
notions  of  the  neighbouring  nations ;  and  the  know- 
ledge of  these  is  necessary  for  explaining  such  pas- 
sages of  Scripture,  as  allude  to,  reprove,  or  confute 
them. 

615.  Their  doctrine  concerning  the  moral  law, 
that  it  regarded  only  overt  acts,  and  required  only 
external  obedience,  but  extended  not  to  the  inward 
motions,  affections,  or  intentions,  gives  a  key  to  such 
passages  of  scripture  as  are  levelled  against  it. 

D.  Kimchi,  in  Psal.  Ixvi.  18. 

Mat.  V.  20.  "Righteousness  of  the  scribes,''^  &c.  that  is,  incul- 
cated by  them,  namely,  external,  v.  21 — 26.  **  Murder.'* 
V.  27—32.  "  Adultery."  v.  33—37.  "  Oaths."  v.  38—42. 
«  Retaliation."  v.  43 — 40.  "  Hatred."  Ch.  vi.  1—18. 
"  Alms,  prayer,  fasting." 

616.  The  opinions  of  the  Jews  concerning  the  Mes- 
siah, which  prevailed  at  the  time  of  Christ's  coming, 
were,  that  he  was  then  to  appear;^    that  he  would  be 


188  JEWISH  OPINIONS. 

a  prophet/  and  work  miracles  f  but,  cliiefly,  that  he 
would  be  their  temporal  king,  and  raise  them  to  the 
empire  of  the  world  :^  which  opinions  not  only  pre- 
vailed, likewise,  among  the  Samaritans,  but  gained 
some  reception  among  other  nations  ;  and  they  illus- 
trate many  passages,  and  account  for  many  facts,  in 
the  New  Testament. 
Joseph.  Sueton.  Tacitus. 
1  Mat.  XX vi.  63.     Luke  ii.  25,  26.  iii.  15.  xxii.  66.     John  i.  19, 

24.  iv.  25,  29,  42.  x.  24. 
*  John  i.  21.  iv.  25,  &c.  vi.  14. 
Lardner,  Credib.  p.  1.  b.  1.  c.  5.  §  1,  3,4. 
s  John  vii.  32. 

^  Hence  John  met  with  a  general  welcome,  from  the  general 
expectation  ;  Jesus  with  a  less  general,  from  their  false  idea. 
He  was  always  rejected  by  the  rulers,  who  perceived  his 
contrariety  to  that  idea  ;  better  received  by  the  people,  who 
were  less  discerning ;  deserted  by  many  who  once  followed 
him,  because  he  answered  not  their  idea.  He  was  seldom 
explicit  in  declaring  himself  the  Christ,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  consequences  of  their  explaining  it  by  their  idea  ;  not 
so  in  John  iv.  26.  Mark  v.  19.  Luke  viii.  39.  because  there 
was  no  risk  of  these  consequences-  He  encouraged  their 
procession  (which  was  a  proclaiming  of  him  king,  2  Kings 
ix.  7.)  into  Jerusalem,  because  no  inconvenience  could  then 
arise  :  they  were  soon  eager  for  his  crucifixion,  because  dis- 
appointed in  their  hope  ;  but  they  grew  fond  of  his  disciples. 
Acts  v.  26  and  their  hope  revived. 
Lardner,  ib.     Macknight,  Harm.  §  26. 

617.  The  Jews  believed  that  justification  belonged 
peculiarly  to  their  nation  ;  and  that,  on  account  of  the 
piety  of  their  ancestors,  their  knowledge  of  the  law, 
and  the  observance  of  its  ceremonies  ;  notions  confuted 


JEWISH  OPINIONS.  189 

in  the  epistles,  (particularly  to  the  Romans,)  and  nec- 
essary to  be  known  for  our  understanding  the  confu- 
tation. 

Michael.  §  129. 

618.  They  thought  that  God  had  elected  them  to 
be  his  people,  so  absolutely,  that  he  was  bound  to 
fulfil  his  promises  to  their  nation,  unconditionally  ; 
and  that  a  prophet  ought  not  to  pronounce  predic- 
tions against  them  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  to  intercede 
for  them,  and  wish  his  own  name  to  be  expunged  ;  an 
opinion  which  is  combated  in  some  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  gives  a  key  to  them. 

Michael.  §  130,  132. 

Rom.  ix.  1 — 5.  The  subject  very  cautiously  introduced,  v. 
6 — 29.  The  opinion  directly  confuted,  v.  30 — x.  21.  Par- 
ticular application  to  themselves.  Ch.  xi.  God's  promise, 
notwithstanding,  kept. 

619.  The  Jews,  after  their  captivity,  entertained 
many  groundless  opinions,  borrowed,  probably,  from 
the  Chaldeans,  and  confirmed  by  their  intercourse 
with  the  Egyptians,  Syrians,  and  Arabians ;  the  ex- 
travagant notions,  for  instance,  of  all  except  the  Sad- 
ucees,  concerning  angels,  their  names,  their  orders, 
and  their  offices. 

620.  They  likewise  adopted  magical  notions,  and 
addicted  themselves  to  arts  and  superstitions  cor- 
respondent to  them  ;  to  which  there  are  some  refer- 
ences in  Scripture. 

Michael.  §  125. 

Mat.  xii.  24,  27.     Acts  xix.  13. 


190  JEWISH  OPINIONS. 

621.  There  has  been  an  opinion  of  considerable 
antiquity  among  the  Jews,  probably  borrowed  from 
the  heathens,  that  it  was  unlawful  to  pronounce  the 
name  tDil^ ;  and  some  even  scrupled  to  write  it ;  a 
superstition  which  has  had  a  great  effect  on  their 
copies  of  the  bible,  especially  the  latter  MSS.  and 
those  of  the  oriental  Jews. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  158,  320,  355,  540.     Walton,  Prol.  8,  §  19. 

622.  In  consequence  of  this  superstition,  that  name 
has,  in  their  copies,  been  often  changed  into  other 
names  of  God  1!D%1^K  or  ^^HK,  in  some  places  where 
the  very  connexion  requires  it,^  in  many  where  it  is 
still  found  in  some  MSS.,^  and  in  others  where  it  is 
indicated  by  parallel  texts  and  the  usage  of  Scrip- 
ture f  and  in  all  these  cases  it  may  be  safely  deter- 
mined that  mn^  is  the  original  and  genuine  reading. 

Ken.  ib.  and  p.  354. 

*  Gen.  xxii.  8.      Abraham  says  HNI^  CD'nb^?,  *'  God   will  pro- 
vide."   But  it  should  be  nin^ ;  for  v.  14.  it  is  said  niH'  HNT; 

by  which  mistake  in  v.  8.  and  a  wrong  pointing  in  v.  14. 
(not  nxp;,  as  there,  but  HNT  "  shall  be  seen")  the  latter  has 
been  obscured  and  misunderstood.  It  should  be,  "  Abraham 
called  the  name  of  that  place  Jehovah -jireh,  because  he  had 
said  that  day  in  the  mount,  Jehovah  will  provide.'*  He  did 
say  so,  V.  8.  and  God  had  provided,  v.  13. 
Ken.  ib.  p.  510. 

^  Printed  ^nx,  MSS.  niH',  Gen.  xx.  4.  MSS.  9. 
2  Kings  xix  23.  MSS.  14. 

Psal.  ii.  4.  MSS.  61.  Isa.  vi.  1.  MSS.  51.  v.  8.  MSS.  44.  v.  11. 
MSS.  S3.  Isa  vii.  14.  MSS.  25.  v.  20.  M»S.  18. 

Printed  CD^nb«,  Isa.  vii.  13.  MS.  1. 

Ken.  ib.  p.  510,  354,  522,  503,  et  in  loc.     Lowth  in  loc. 

*  1  Chron.  xi.  19.  corrected  by  2  Sam.  xxiii.  17,  and  by  usage. 


JEWISH  WRITERS.  191 

1  Sam.  xxiv.  5.  xxvi.  11.     1  Kings  xxi.  3. 
Psal.  Ixviii.  mn*  six  times,  MS. ;   three  of  which  also  Judg. 
V.  4,  5. 
Ken.  ib.  p.  155,  &c. 

623.  In  consequence  of  the  same  superstition,  the 
Jewish  transcribers  sometimes  interpolated  ^<3"1N  be- 
fore nin\  omitting  likewise  D%*l7K  when  it  followed 
this  latter,  in  order  to  prevent  a  reader^s  inadvert- 
ently pronouncing  the  ineffable  name. 

2  Sam.  vii.  23,  24.     This  is  done  six  times ;  but  corrected  bj 

1  Chron.  xvii.  21,  22.  by  the  punctuation,  by  some  MSS.  and 

by  the  Chald.  Syr.  and  Vulg. 
Isa.  Ixi.  1.  corrected  by  Luke  iv.  18.  by  70.    Vulg.  Arab.  MSS, 

also  V.  11. 
Zeph.  1.  7.     MSS.  8. 

Ken.  Diss,  1.  p.  459,  510,  503,  et  in  loc.    Lowth  in  loc. 


SECT.  V. 


Of  the  Jewish  Writers. 

624.  Learning  includes  the  knowledge  of  books^ 
as  well  as  of  facts  and  opinions  ;  and  there  are  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  books  useful  in  Scripture  criticism ; 
the  first  of  which  is  the  books  of  the  Jewish  writers, 
exclusive  of  their  targums,  which  have  been  already 
mentioned.  (Ch.  IV.  Sect.  I.) 


192  JEWISH  WRITERS. 

625.  Philo,  a  learned  Jew  of  Alexandria,  wrote 
soon  after  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  several  of  his  works 
are  extant. 

626.  They  contain  many  quotations  from  the  Scrip- 
tures, which  may  show  how  the  text  then  stood  in  the 
original,  or  at  least  in  the  70  version. 

Exod.  XX.  3,  4,  5,  6.  Late  editions  have  these  verses  as  one 
commandment;  but  Philo,  as  two.  v.  17.  as  two,  in  Edit, 
but,  as  one,  in  Philo,  and  in  most  MSS. 

Ken  Diss.  2.  p.  351.     Diss.  Gen.  §  15,  29,  165,  et  in  loc. 

627.  They  contain  accounts  of  many  of  the  customs 
of  the  Jews  ;  of  their  opinions,  especially  such  as  were 
derived  from  the  oriental  Philosophy,  to  which  he 
was  addicted;  and  of  facts,  particularly  relating  to 
their  state  under  the  Roman  emperors  ;  fit  to  throw 
light  on  many  passages  of  Scripture. 

Simon,  V.  T.  c.  17.     Beausobre,  Introd. 

628.  Josephus,  a  priest  and  a  Pharisee,  flourished 
soon  after  the  death  of  Christ,  and  wrote  after  the 
taking  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans. 

His  works  are,  Jewish  Antiquities ;  Jewish  War ;  Against  Ap- 
pion ;  His  own  Life. 

6'29.  As  he  often  translated  the  Scriptures,  and  as, 
much  oftener,  his  subject  coincides  with  them,  some  of 
his  works  are  of  great  use  for  showing  how  they  then 
stood,  and  may  assist  in  either  confirming  or  correct- 
ing readings. 

Exod.  XX.  3—6, 17.     Antiq.  Jud.  1.  3.  c.  5. 

He  confirms  the  chronology  of  the  70,  from  the  creation  to 
Abraham.     Antiq.  1.  1. 


JEWISH  WRITERS.  193 

630.  His  writings  contain  accounts  of  many  Jewish 
customs  and  opinions,  and  of  the  different  sects,  which 
contribute  very  much  to  the  ilhistration  of  Scrip- 
ture. 

631.  They  contain  many  facts,  particularly  such 
as  relate  to  the  civil  and  religious  state  of  the  Jews 
about  the  time  of  Christ,  which  being  supposed, 
alluded  to,  or  mentioned,  in  passages  of  Scripture, 
enable  us  to  enter  into  the  meaning  of  these  passages. 

632.  His  accurate  and  minute  detail  of  many  of  the 
events  of  his  own  time,  and,  above  all,  of  the  Jewish 
war,  and  the  siege  and  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
affords  us  the  means  of  perceiving  the  accomplish- 
ment of  many  of  Christ's  predictions,  especially  of  his 
circumstantial  prediction  of  the  downfall  of  the  Jewish 
nation  and  religion. 

633.  The  Talmud  contains  the  oral,  or  unwritten 
law,  which  had  been  handed  down  by  tradition ;  it  was 
held  in  high  estimation  by  the  Jews,  and,  by  many  of 
them,  preferred  to  the  Scripture;  but  there  were 
always  some  who  thought  more  reasonably  of  it. 

Buxtorf.  Abbrev.  p.  221 — 225.      Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  441.  Diss. 
Gen.  §  32. 

634.  It  consists  of  two  parts  ;  the  first,  the  Misnah, 
or  text,  which  was  written ;  according  to  some,  in 
the  second,  according  to  others,  in  the  fourth  or  fifth 
century. 

Ken.  ib, 

25 


194  JEWISH  WRITERS. 

635.  The  second,  the  Gemara,  or  commentary  on 
the  Misnah  ;  which  is  twofold  ;  one  compiled  by  the 
Jews  of  Palestine,  it  is  supposed  by  some  between  the 
years  300  and  400,  by  others,  about  600,  which  (to- 
gether with  the  Misnah)  is  called  the  Jerusalem  Tal- 
mud ;  the  other,  about  200  years  later,  by  the  eastern 
Jews,  and  called  the  Talmud  of  Babylon,  which  is 
most  esteemed ;  but   both  are  full  of  absurd  fables. 

Ken.  ib. 

636.  The  Talmud  contains  many  quotations  from 
Scripture ;  and  in  these  are  many  readings  different 
from  those  of  the  latter  and  Masoretic  copies ;  in 
adopting  which,  caution  is  necessary,  on  account  of  its 
inaccuracy ;  several  being  false,  but  several  also 
preferable,  and  some  of  considerable  importance. 

Ken.  Diss.  2.  ib.  Diss.  Gen.  §  33,  34,  35.  Simon,  V.  T.  1,  1. 
c-  20.     Buxtorf  Anticrit.  1.  2.  c.  12.  Capel. 

Lev.  xvi.  11.  "Aaron  shall  lay  both  (n^)  his  /mwrf."  Heb. 
absurd ;  but  the  Talmud  has  VT  ;  and  so  the  Keri,  and 
above  30  MSJ?. 

2  Chron.  xxvi.  5.  "  Zechariah  had  understanding  (nj<'i2)  in  the 
visions  of  God."  This  is  obscure  and  unusual.  The  Tal- 
mud has  riNn"3  "  in  the  fear  ;"  and  so  about  50  MSS.  70. 
Arab.  feyr. 

Ken.  ib.  and  in  loc. 

637.  The  Talmud  can  give  no  assistance  in  interpret- 
ing Scripture,  by  its  explications  of  particular  texts, 
which  are  generally  allegorical,  scarcely  ever  literal ; 
or  by  its  history  and  chronology,  which  are  totally  er- 
roneous ;  but  it  gives  considerable  assistance,  by  pre- 
serving many  Jewish  traditions,  maxims,    opinions, 


JEWISH  WRITERS.  195 

and   customs,  which  are  mentioned  or  alluded  to  in 
Scripture. 
Lightfoot  Prffif.  in  Mat.     Simon,  V.  T.  1.  3.  c.  6. 

638.  The  Masora  is  a  collection  of  traditionary  re- 
marks, concerning  the  texts  of  the  Old  Testament ; 
and  is  twofold,  the  greater,  and  the  lesser. 

Buxtorf.  Tiberias.  Walton,  Prol.  8.  §  ].  Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1. 
c.  24,  25,  26.  Houbig.  Prol.  c.  1.  a.  3.  Ken.  Diss.  2.  p. 
262—291.     Diss.  Gen.  §  37—40. 

639.  It  contains  remarks  of  very  different  kinds,  and 
ef  different  degrees  of  importance  ;  which,  however, 
may  be  all  reduced  to  two  heads.  The  first  is  called 
by  some,  the  ancient  Masora,  and  regards  the  various 
readings  of  the  text ;  it  includes  Ittur  Sopherim  (ab- 
latio scribarum),  Tikkun  Sopherim  (correctio  scriba- 
rum),  Keri,  or  various  readings  collected  from  MSS. 
agreeing  most  with  the  oldest  MSS.  and,  except  four- 
teen, found  all  in  some  MSS.  still  extant,  some  conjec- 
tural emendations  (severim),  and  the  defective  places 
marked  by  a  piska. 

Simon,  ib.  c.  26.  Walton,  Prol.  8.  6  18—26.  Houbig.  ib. 
Ken.  ib. 

640.  The  other  part  of  it  consists  of  minute  obser- 
vations concerning  the  number  of  letters,  words,  verses 
and  sections,  in  each  book,  and  in  the  whole  Bible  ; 
concerning  their  position,  and  irregularities  in  writ- 
ing them  ;  and  concerning  the  vowel  points  and  ac- 
cents. 

Walton,  ib.  §  2—10.    Simon,  ib.  c.  25.    Ken.  ib. 


196  JEWISH  WRITERS. 

641.  Some  of  the  Jews,  very  absurdly,  ascribe  the 
Masora  to  Moses,  and  most  of  them  to  Ezra,  though  a 
few  of  them  acknowledge  their  ignorance  of  its  age,  or 
allow  it  to  be  modern ;  but  it  is  a  collection  of  remarks 
made  at  different  times,  begun,  most  probably,  in  the 
6th  century,  in  imitation  of  the  Arabians,  containing, 
however,  observations  more  ancient,  gradually  carried 
on  by  different  persons,  particularly  the  Jews  of  Tibe- 
rias, and  ended  about  the  beginning  of  the  9th  cen- 
tury. 

Walton,  ib.  §  11,  12,  18.      Simon,  ib.  c.  25.  and  1.  3.  c.  23. 
Houbig.  ib.     Ken.  Diss.  2.  ib.  &  Diss.  Gen.  §  40. 

642.  It  has  been  extolled  by  the  Jews  in  general, 
and  by  many  Christians,  as  sufficient  for  correcting  all 
the  mistakes  which  had  crept  into  the  copies  of  the 
Bible,  and  for  preventing  any  mistakes  from  creeping 
in  afterwards  ;  but  to  these  purposes  it  is  totally  in- 
adequate ;  the  latter  part  of  it  is  insignificant  and 
useless  ;  the  former  part  is  useful,  but  neither  accu- 
rate and  complete,  nor  always  judicious. 

Walton,  ib.  §  13 — 17.    vSimon,  ib.    Ken.  ib. 

643.  The  Jews  have  a  Cabala,  which,  too,  they 
ridiculously  represent  as  a  collection  of  traditions 
handed  down  from  Moses,  but  of  which  they  probably 
received  the  idea,  either  from  the  Babylonians,  during 
their  captivity,  or,  from  the  oriental  philosophy,  after 
their  return  ;  it  is  employed  in  deducing  mysteries 
from  letters,  words,  or  points^  considered  in  certain 
fanciful  lights. 

D'Espeires  de  Text.  Heb.  Disp.  2.  Dub.  5.  Hottinger.  Thesaur. 


JEWISH  WRITERS.  197 

Philol.  1.  1.  c.  3.  §  5.    Morin.  Exercit.  2.  c.  T,  8,  9.    Walton, 
Prol.  8.  §  30,  &c.     Simon,  ib.  1.  3.  c.  23. 

644.  It  is  of  different  kinds  ;  Gematria^  deducing 
mysteries  from  a  word^  by  comparing  it  with,  or  ex- 
plaining it  by  another,  whose  letters,  as  used  in  nota- 
tion, amount  to  the  same  sum  ;^  Notarikon,  by  making 
each  letter  stand  for  a  word,  of  w^iich  it  is  the  initial, 
and  thus  from  one  word  forming  a  sentence  f  Permu- 
tation, by  combining  the  letters  of  a  word  differently, 
changing  their  order,  or  substituting  in  their  place 
others  supposed  analogous  to  them,  for  their  position 
in  the  alphabet,  or  some  other  reason  equally  chi- 
merical.^ 

lid.     Walton,  ib.  §  34—37.     Simon,  ib.  1.  3.  c.  6. 

*  Zech.  iii.  8.     2  Exod.  xv.  11.     ^  Exod.  xxiii.  23. 

643.  Many  of  the  Jews  set  a  high  value  on  the  Ca- 
bala, and  even  prefer  it  to  the  Scripture,  as  giving  the 
spiritual  meaning  of  the  law  ;  but  it  is  truly  a  fanciful 
and  impious  method  of  wresting  Scripture  to  what- 
ever sense  one  pleases,  equally  void  of  solidity  and 
use. 

Walton,  ib.  §  30,  38. 

646.  The  Jews  have,  likewise,  a  practical  Cabala, 
which  is  a  species  of  magic,  being  a  method  of  using 
letters  and  words  as  charms  for  curing  diseases,  work- 
ing miracles,  obtaining  intercourse  with  angels,  and 
the  like ;  and  this  is  not  only  useless,  but  detestable. 

Walton,  ib.  §  33. 


198  JEWISH  WRITERS. 

647.  All  the  other  Jewish  writers  are  comprehended 
under  the  name  of  Rabbins  ;  and  their  works  are  of 
different  kinds^  and  different  degrees  of  utility. 

648.  Though  most  of  them  extol  the  Masora^  and 
adhere  to  the  text^  as  determined  by  it ;  yet  many  of 
them  bear  testimony  to  the  variation  of  copies,  and  in 
their  quotations  give  readings  different  from  the  re- 
ceived ones ;  and  some  have  made  collections  of 
various  readings,  as  of  the  oriental  and  occidental 
MSS.  of  Ben  Asher  and  Ben  Naphtali. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  41,  42,  43. 

649.  Some  of  the  Rabbinical  writers  employ  them- 
selves wholly  on  the  grammar  of  the  Hebrew  language, 
which  they  took  from  the  Arabians,  and  in  which  they 
have  affected  great  subtlety  ;  by  this  they  contributed 
much  to  the  knowledge  of  that  language,  and,  conse- 
quently, to  the  understanding  of  the  Old  Testament ; 
but  all  that  is  useful  in  them  may  now  be  much  more 
easily  learned  from  later  works. 

650.  In  their  interpretations  of  Scripture,  they  are 
either  literal,  allegorical,  or  cabalistical ;  and  some 
of  them  unite  all  these  three  modes. 

Bechai. 

651.  Many  of  them,  especially  the  most  ancient, 
are  wholly  set  on  allegorizing  the  Scriptures  ;  and 
these  are  of  no  use,  except  their  fables  happen  now 
and  then  to  throw  light  on  opinions  referred  to  in 
Scripture. 

.Tarclii. 


JEWISH  WRITERS.  199 

652.  Their  cabalistical  interpretations  are  ridicu- 
lous and  altogether  useless. 

Ramban.    Abraham  Seba.     Moses  Negara,  &c. 

653.  The  literal  method  of  interpreting  Scripture 
was  revived  among  the  Jews,  by  some  who  rejected 
all  their  traditions,  allowing  authority  only  to  the 
written  word,  explained  according  to  reason,  and 
were,  on  this  account,  called  Caraites,  and  regarded 
as  a  distinct  sect,  from  about  the  middle  of  the  8th 
century. 

Simon,  V.  T.  1.  1.  c.  27.  1.  3.  c.  5,  6.  &  Catalog.     Auth.    Jud. 
Beausobre,  Intr.     Aaron. 

654.  Many  of  the  Rabbinical  writers  who  censure 
the  Caraites,  and  do  not  reject  all  tradition,  yet  em- 
ploy themselves  chiefly  in  finding  out  the  literal  sense 
of  Scripture,  though  often  with  too  minute  attention 
to  the  subtleties  of  their  Grammar,  or  too  great  an 
intermixture  of  their  philosophical  notions. 

Simon,  ib. 

Aben  Ezra.    Maimonides.    Kimchi.    Levi  Ben  Gerson.  Abar- 
banel.     Mordochai.    Lombroso.    Aben  Melecli. 

655.  The  Rabbinical  writers  have  many  explica- 
tions of  Scripture  handed  down  to  them  by  tradition, 
or  contained  in  MSS.  to  which  there  is  not  general 
access  ;  several  of  them  just,  and,  therefore,  highly 
useful. 

656.  They  likewise  apply  much  to  the  study  of  the 
Hebrew  language,  and  have  great  knowledge  of  it, 
which  enables  them  to  give  the  sense  of  Scripture ; 


200  CHRISTIAN  WRITERS. 

and,  particularly,  they  preserve  many  idioms,  phrases 
and  modes  of  expression,  used  by  their  ancestors, 
which  best  illustrate  texts  in  which  similar  ones 
occur. 

Mat.  xii.  36.  "  Every  idle  word  {pm^ot  '^ecpyov)  they  shall  give 
account  thereof,"  their  easy,  ordinary  conversation,  whether 
good  or  bad,  (Kimchi  in  Psal.  i.  3. ;)  we  shall  be  examined 
concerning  our  slighter  discourse,  as  well  as  our  more  de- 
liberate. 


SECT.  VI. 


Of  the  Ancient  Christian  Writers. 

# 

657.  The  writings  of  the  ancient  Christians,  called 
the  Fathers,  are  of  some  use  in  criticism,  both  with 
respect  to  the  reading,  and  the  sense. 

658.  They  contain  many  (Quotations  from  the  orig- 
inal, at  least  of  the  New  Testament ;  and  all  have 
agreed,  that  these  may  supply  various  readings,  some 
of  them  genuine ;  though  not  concerning  the  degree 
of  authority  due  to  them. 

659.  Some,  affirming  that  they  frequently  quote 
inaccurately,  or  only  from  memory,  determine  that 
they  give  no  authority,  or  very  little,  to  any  reading 
which  is  not  established  by  MSS. 

Michael.  §  30.    Pfaif.  c.  12.  can.  3.    Whitby  Exam.  Millii,  1. 
1.  c.  1. 


CHRISTIAN  WRITERS.  201 

660.  Others,  particularly  Popish  writers,  think, 
that  their  works  being  more  ancient  than  any  MSS. 
now  extant,  the  quotations  found  in  them  are  the  best 
means  of  settling  the  genuine  reading,  and  ought  to 
have  the  greatest  authority. 

Dupin.  Diss.  Prelim.     Michael,  ib. 

661.  The  truth  seems  to  be,  that  they  generally 
quoted  Scripture  very  exactly,  as  they  had  it  in  their 
copies ;  and,  therefore,  when  a  reading  followed  by 
them  agrees  with  any  ancient  MS.,  it  is,  probably, 
the  genuine  reading. 

Wetstein,  Prol.  c.  Id.  can.  14.     Pfaff.  ib. 

Mat.  vi.  1."  Do  not  £Xevif*.o<rvny,  alms."     So  most  copies.    But 
c'lKutoFvii]*,  "  righteousness,"  in  2  ancient  MS^.,  Vulg.,  most 
Fathers,  and  most  agreeable  to  the  Scripture  style. 
Mill.  &  Pearce  in  loc. 

662.  The  total  silence  of  the  Fathers  concerning  a 
reading  which  would  have  confirmed  their  opinion  in  a 
controverted  point,  justly  renders  that  reading  suspi- 
cious. 

Wetstein,  ib. 

663.  The  Fathers  generally  take  their  quotations 
from  the  70  version ;  and  the  Latin  Fathers  quote 
Scripture  according  to  the  Latin  versions  then  in  use ; 
they  therefore  show  what  was  then  read  in  these  ver- 
sions. 

664.  Concerning  the  usefulness  of  the  Fathers  for 
the  interpretation  of  Scripture,  there  are  very  different 
opinions  ;  some,  particularly  the  generality  of  Popish 

26 


202  CHRISTIAN  WRITERS. 

writers^  reckon  their  authority  absolute,  and  their  in- 
terpretations sacred. 

665.  Others,  considering  their  interpretations,  as 
received  by  the  most  ancient  of  them  from  the  apostles, 
or  their  immediate  hearers,  and  successively  transmit- 
ted to  the  rest,  allow  them  so  great  authority,  espe- 
cially when  several  agree  in  them,  that  they  ought  to 
be  adopted,  except  there  be  the  most  cogent  reasons 
against  them. 

666.  Others  consider  their  interpretations  as  entitled 
to  no  authority,  except  what  they  derive  from  their 
appearing  just,  on  a  fair  examination  of  them;  but 
differ  concerning  the  degree  of  this  authority. 

667.  Most  of  the  Fathers  being  totally  ignorant  of 
the  Hebrew  language,  and  many  of  the  Latin  Fathers 
ignorant  of  the  Greek,  as  well  as  of  the  rules  of  criti- 
cism ;  their  literal  explications  of  Scripture  are  often 
lame  and  superficial. 

668.  In  their  polemical  works,  they  often  stretch 
the  Scripture,  in  order  to  favour  the  doctrines  which 
they  maintained. 

669.  In  their  homilies,  when  they  stick  to  the  lite- 
ral sense,  they  study  not  so  much  to  determine  it  with 
accuracy,  as  to  accommodate  the  most  obvious  mean- 
ing to  their  subject,  or  to  apply  it  to  practical  pur- 
poses in  a  rhetorical  manner. 

Chrysostom.     Basil. 


CHRISTIAN  WRITERS.  203 

670.  Even  such  of  them  as  did  not  wholly  neglect 
the  literal  sense  of  Scripture^  are  fond  of  allegorizing 
it,  and  drawing  from  it  mystical  meanings,  which  are 
altogether  fanciful,  and  of  no  use. 

Origen.     Augustine.     Hilary.    Ambrose.     Cyril. 

671 .  The  later  Fathers  generally  borrowed  the  in- 
terpretations of  some  of  the  earlier,  with  some  varia- 
tions. 

Hilary,  Origen's.    Ambrose,  Origen's,  and  Basil's.     Cassiodo- 
rus,  Augustine's.    Rabban,  Jerome's. 

672.  It  became  customary,  in  later  times,  to  make 
compendious  collections  of  the  different  explications 
of  texts  of  Scripture  given  by  the  Fathers ;  which 
were  called  Catenae  ;  and  contain,  some  good,  and 
many  trifling. 

Procop.   Nicet.    Lipoman. 

673.  Many  just  interpretations  of  Scripture,  and 
some  good  rules  for  interpreting  it,  may  be  collected 
from  the  works  of  some  of  the  Fathers,  and  will  be  of 
great  advantage. 

Origen.    Augustin.  de  Doctrin.  Christ.    Hieronym.  Comment. 
&c.    Theodoret.  Quest,  and  Comment. 


204  CHRISTIAN  WRITERS. 


SECT.  VII. 

Of  Modern  Christian  Writers, 

674.  Ever  since  the  revival  of  learning,  Christians 
have  bestowed  considerable  attention  on  the  Scrip- 
tures ;  and,  besides  improved  editions,  and  versions 
of  them,  have  produced  many  works,  of  several  kinds, 
which  contribute  much  to  scripture  criticism. 

675.  Collections  of  various  readings  are  the  only 
means  of  making  MSS.,  copies,  and  versions,  exten- 
sively useful,  by  enabling  those  who  have  not  access 
to  all  or  many  of  them,  to  form  a  judgment  concern- 
ing the  genuine  readings  of  Scripture  ;  and  many  such 
collections  have  been  made,  first,  with  respect  to  the 
New  Testament,  and,  more  lately,  with  respect  to 
the  Old. 

Laurent.  Valla,  Annotat.  Erasmus,  Comment.  Stevens, 
Nov.  Test.  Grotius,  Comment.  Hammond,  Annot.  Lucas 
Brugensis,  Comment,  in  Evang.  Walton,  Polyglot,  tom.  6, 
Curcellffius,  Fell,  Gerard  of  Maestricht,  Mill,  Kuster,  Wet- 
stein,  Bengelius,  Griesbach,  in  editions  of  the  N.  T.  Jo. 
Hen.  Michaelis,  Houbigant,  Kennicott,  in  editions  of  the  0  T. 

676.  Most  of  the  capital  editions  of  the  Scriptures 
are  accompanied  with  prolegomena,  or  dissertations, 
which  contain  many  critical  observations,  particularly 
concerning  the  true  reading  of  Scripture,  and  the 
means  of  determining  it ;    and  there  are  many  other 


CHRISTIAN  WRITERS.  205 

treatises^  adapted   chiefly  or  only  to  the  same  pur- 
pose. 

Walton,    Proleg.      Houbigant,    Proleg.     Kennicott,    Dissert. 
General. 

Mill.     Kuster.    Wetstein.     Griesbach,   Proleg. 

JV^orin.  Exercitat.   Bibl.     Capell.     Critic.    Sac.     Kennicott's 

Dissertations  and  Remarks  on  Select  Passages  in  the  0.  T. 

Michaelis's  Introd.  Marsh's  Translation. 
Eichhorn's  Introd.    Campbell's  Dissertations. 

677.  Concordances  are  useful,  not  only  for  readily 
finding  particular  passages  of  Scripture,  but  for  com- 
paring such  as  are  parallel,  and  for  discovering  the 
meaning  of  words  and  phrases  in  the  several  places 
where  they  are  used  ;  and  there  are  many  works  of 
this  kind  adapted  to  the  Bible,  both  in  the  original 
languages,  and  in  that  of  the  several  versions. 

H(!b.  O.  T.    Buxtorf.     Calasio.     Taylor. 

Greek  N.  T.     Stevens.     Schmid.     Xistus  Betuleius. 

70  Version.     Kircher.    Abrah.    Trommius. 

Vulgate.    Hugo  Cardinal.     Alberstad.    Luca.    Pellican.  R. 

&  H.  Stevens. 
Jun.  &  Tremel. 
English  Version.    Dovt^nham.    Cotton.   Newman.    Cambridge. 

Cruden. 

678.  Commentaries  are  professed  explications  of 
Scripture  ;  and  there  are  many  such  explications^ 
either  of  the  whole  Scripture,  or  of  particular  books, 
by  Christians  of  all  denominations ;  but  which  have 
very  different  degrees  of  merit. 


206  CHRISTIAN  WRITERS. 

679.  The  commentaries  of  Popish  writers  are  gen- 
erally filled  with  the  several  explications  of  the  differ- 
ent Fathers^  most  of  which  are  merely  allegorical ;  or 
with  scholastic  subtleties  ;  and  some  of  them  contain 
almost  nothing  else. 

Cornelius  a  Lapide.     Pererius.     Leo  Castro. 

680.  But,  many  of  the  Popish  commentators,  along 
with  the  opinions  of  the  Fathers,  and  a  superfluity  of 
controversial  dissertations,  are  at  pains  to  investigate 
the  true  and  literal  sense  of  Scripture,  from  the  nature 
of  the  language,^  the  comparison  of  the  ancient  ver- 
sions,^ or  the  writings  of  the  Rabbins,^  or  from  several 
of  these  together.'* 

J  Cajetan.  Oleaster.  Tostatus.  Ribera.  Malvenda.  Mari- 
ana. Nicolaus  Ljranus.  Paulus  Burgensis.  Laurentius 
Valla. 

2  Bonfrerius.     Genebrard.     Bellanniii. 

3  Serarius.     De  Muys. 

"^  Titelman.      Augustinus   Eugubinus.     Maldonatus.    Estius. 
Gordon. 

681.  There  are  many  commentaries  on  the  Scrip- 
tures, by  protestant  writers,  written  in  very  diiferent 
manners  :  some  of  them  show  no  great  knowledge  of 
the  original  languages,  nor  are  very  critical ;  but  are 
chiefly  occupied  either  about  theological  questions,  or " 
practical  observations. 

Luther.     Calvin.    Zuinglius.     Gallasius.     Peter  Martyr. 

682.  Others,  along  with  theological  and  practi- 
cal disquisitions,  give  a  critical  explication  of  the 
sense  of  Scripture. 

Molerus.    Musculus. 


CHRISTIAN  WRITERS.  207 

683.  Others  confine  themselves^  wholly,  to  a  criti- 
cal explication  of  the  Scriptures,  and  apply  to  it, 
either  grammatical  knowledge  of  the  language,^  the 
ancient  versions/^  the  kindred  languages,^  the  exam- 
ination of  Scripture  itself/  or  the  several  kinds  of 
learning,  historical,  rabbinical,^  classical,^  which  can 
be  conducive  to  it ;  or  several  of  these  means  to- 
gether/ 

^   Mercerus.     Fagius.     Bain.     Forerius.     Vatablus.     Masius. 
Codurcus.     Liveleius.     Ainsworth. 

2  Wall's  Critical  Notes. 

3  De  Dieu.     Pocock.  Scimltens. 

*  Locke.  Taylor.  Pearce.  Benson.  Brennius.  Crellius. 
Slichtingius. 

*  Munster.     Lightfoot. 
^  Castalio.    Casaubon. 

^  Drusius.     Grotius.    Patrick.    Lowth.    Hammond.    Whitby. 
Pool.    Macknight.     Horseley  on  Rosea. 

684.  There  are  many  observations  or  dissertations 
on  particular  passages,  which  generally  consider  them 
with  greater  accuracy  than  commentaries  on  whole 
books,  but  are  conducted  on  different  principles,  and 
executed  with  different  degrees  of  skill. 

Hackspan.    Knatchbull. 

685.  There  are  several  treatises  employed  in  laying 
down  general  principles  of  criticism,  or  rules  for  the 
explication  of  Scripture. 

Arise  Montani  prsefationes.  De  la  Haye  quaest.  prelirainar. 
Sixti  Senens.  Bibliotheca  sancta.  Lindanus  de  optimo  genere 
interpretationis.  Masii  praefationes.  Matth.  Flacc.  Illjrici 
Clavis  scripturaB.  Hottinger.  Glassii  Philolog.  sacra.  Lowth 


208  PAGAN  WRITERS* 

preelect.  de  sacra  poesi  Hebraeorum.  Herder's  Dialogues  on 
Hebrew  Poetry.  Campbell's  Preliminary  Dissertations  and 
Gospels.     Macknight  on  Gospels  and  Epistles. 

686.  There  are  many  works  written  on  particular 

subjects  related  to  the  Scriptures^  and  of  great  use  for 

understanding  them. 

Usser.  et  Capell.  sacra  chronolog.     Bocharti,  Phaleg.  et  Hiero- 
zoicon.     Spencer  de  legibus  Hebraeorum. 

687.  Among  the  works  of  Christian  writers,  useful 
in  Scripture  criticism,  must  be  reckoned  Harmonies ; 
but  these  may  be  considered  with  greater  advantage 
afterwards. 


SECT.  VIII. 


Of  Pagan  Writers, 

688.  Even  Pagan  writers,  especially  the  ancient, 
may  be  rendered,  in  different  ways,  subservient  to  the 
illustration  of  Scripture. 

689.  Pagan  writers  use  words  and  phrases  coinci- 
dent with,  or  analogous  to,  those  of  the  sacred  writers, 
and  fit  for  ascertaining  the  meaning,  or  showing  the 
force  and  propriety,  of  these. 

Isa.  i.  5.  "  On  what  part  will  ye  strike  again  ?" 
Ovid.  Pont.  2.  7.  42.    Euripid.  Here.  Fur.  1245. 
Lowth's  Isaiah  in  loo. 

690.  Pagan  writers  often  employ  the  same  images 
with  the  sacred,  so  as  to  throw  light  on  their  import, 


PAGAN  WRITERS.  209 

and,  generally,  so  as  to  set  off  their  superior  excel- 
lence. 

Isa.  ii.  4.  "  Beat  swords  into  ploughshares,"  &c.  an  image  of 
peace.     "  Fal\  ex  ense." 

Lowth  in  loc. 
Joel,  iii    10.  "Ploughshares  into  swords,"  &c.  an  image  of  war, 
**  Falces  in   ensein."   Virg.  Georg.  i.  506.  &c.     "  De  rastri 
pondere  cassis."  Ovid  Fast.  i.  697,  &c. 
Lowth,  ib. 

Isa.  viii.  6,  7,  8.  "  Soft  waters  of  Shiloah, the  waters 

of  the  river  (Euphrates)  strong  and  many,"  &c.  By  these 
images,  the  two  countries  are  finely  contrasted.  "  In  Ty- 
berim  Orontes."  Juvenal.  "Euphrates  ibat  moUior." 
Virg.  ^n.  8.  1.  726.  the  same  image,  but  without  the  con- 
trast. 

Lowth  in  loc. 
Isa.  xi.  6 — 8.     There  is  here  greater  beauty,  variety,  and  force, 
than  in  the  images  of  the  renewal  of  the  golden  age,  in  Virg. 
Eel.  4.  1.  22,  24.     Horat.  Theocr. 
Jones,  Poes.  Asiat.  Comment,  p.  380.     Lowth  in  loc. 
Isa.  xxix.  8   xxxi.  4,  5.  xxxii.  2.  xlv.  2.  xlix.  2. 

Lowth  in  loc. 
Rev.  viii.  8.  "  A  great  mountain ;"  a  warlike  hero.    Virg.  JEn, 

12.1.701. 
V.  10.  "  A  great  star;"  a  prince.     Homer,  11.  4. 1.  75, 

691.  Pagan  writers  contain  sentiments,  opinions, 
and  facts,  which,  in  different  ways,  cast  light  on  pas- 
sages of  Scripture. 

Dan.  ii.  32,  33.     Four  empires,  and  peiiods  of  time,  are  repre- 
sented by  gold,  silver,  brass,  and  iron ;  agreeably  to  the  re- 
ceived opinion  concerning  the  four  ages  of  the  world. 
Hesiod.     Newton  on  Proph. 
27 


210  PAGAN  WRITERS. 

Psal.  Ix.  8.  cviii.  9,  "  Moab  is  my  wash-pot ;"    an  emblem  of 
being  low  and  contemptible,  which  is  illustrated  by  the  story 
of  Amasis  forming  a  bason  into  an  image.    Herodot.  1.  6. 
Findlay,  Vindicat.  p.  2.  c.  1.  s.  5. 


PART   II. 


THE  OBJECTS  OF  SCRIPTURE  CRITICISM. 

692.  The  objects  of  Scripture  criticism  are,  the 
several  sorts  of  difficulties  which  occur  in  the  sacred 
writings,  and  which  must  be  removed,  in  order  to  our 
rightly  understanding  these  writings. 

693.  As  all  difficulties  must  regard  either  the  read- 
ing, or  the  sense,  criticism  is  twofold ; — corrective  or 
emendatory,  being  employed  in  determining  the  true 
reading  ; — and  explanatory  or  interpretative,  discov- 
ering the  genuine  sense ;  under  the  latter  of  which 
may  naturally  enough  be  comprehended  whatever 
regards  the  beauties  or  the  peculiarities  of  composition 
in  Scripture. 

Harris's  Philolog.  Inquir.  part  1. 

694.  Difficulties  regarding  the  sense  are  of  differ- 
ent kinds;  there  are  difficulties — in  separate  words, 
— in  construction,  idiom,  phrases,  and  figures, — in 
scope,  and  connexion,  and  other  circumstances, — in 
reconciling  Scripture  to  itself — to  the  principles  of 
reason  and  morality — to  history ;  and  there  are  diffi- 
culties of  a  complicated  nature.  These  give  a  proper 
division  of  explanatory  criticism,  to  which  we  shall 
proceed,  after  having  given  a  view  of  the  emendatory. 


212       NATURE  OF  A  VARIOUS  READING. 


CHAP.  I. 

Corrective^  or  Emendatory  Criticism, 

695.  The  Scriptures,  as  well  as  all  other  writings, 
being  preserved  and  diffused  by  transcription,  were 
unavoidably  liable  to  be  corrupted  ;  and  in  the  copies 
of  them,  different  readings  are  actually  found  ;  whence 
arises  the  necessity  of  criticism,  for  determining  the 
true  reading. 

696.  In  order  to  this,  it  will  be  proper  to  ascertain 
the  nature  of  a  various  reading — to  point  out  the  sour- 
ces of  false  readings — to  distinguish  the  several  kinds 
of  them — and  to  lay  down  rules  for  judging  of  the 
genuine  reading. 


SECT.  I. 

The  Nature  of  a  Various  Reading, 

697.  How^EVER  plain  the  meaning  of  a  various  read- 
ing may  seem  to  be,  it  has  been  sometimes  understood 
so  as  to  introduce  confusion  or  mistake. 

698.  Some  have  allowed  the  name,  only  to  such 
readings  as  may  possibly  have  proceeded  from  the  au- 
thor ;  but  this  restriction  is  improper. 

Whitby  Exam.     V.  L.  iMill  passim.     Kuster  Prasf. 


NATURE  OF  A  VARIOUS  READING.        215 

699.  According  to  this  definition,  all  the  differences 
of  copies  are  reducible  to  four  heads. 

700.  First,  such  as  are  improperly  called  various 
readings  ;  solecisms,  absurdities,  palpable  blunders  of 
transcribers,  typographical  errors,  differences  in  syl- 
labication, &c.  which  take  in  the  greatest  part  of  the 
variations  found  in  copies  ;  but  are  to  be  reckoned, 
some  depravations,  others  trifles,  none  various  read- 
ings. 

Whitby  Partit.  §  3.  and  passim.     Kuster,  ib. 

701.  But,  to  refuse  these  the  name  of  various  read- 
ings, is  improper ;  for  it  is  to  call  that  no  reading, 
which  is  actually  read  in  some  copies  ;  and  it  is  use- 
less ;  for  the  merit,  and  the  real  occasion,  of  a  read- 
ing, are  often  matters  of  difficult  discussion. 

Kuster,  ib.     Kennic.  Diss.  1.  p.  271. 

702.  Second,  such  as  it  is  doubtful  whether  they 
be  improperly  various  readings,  or  whether  they  be 
properly  such,  as  capable  of  having  come  from  the 
author ;  readings,  for  instance,  in  quotations,  which 
may  have  been  taken  either  from  a  copy,  or  from 
memory. 

703.  Such,  too,  ought  to  be  considered  as  various 
readings,  till  reason  appear  for  rejecting  them  on 
examination. 

704.  Third,  such  as  are  real  and  proper  various 
readings,  since  any  of  them  might  have  been  the  orig- 
inal   reading,   but   of    no   importance ;    synonymous 


214       NATURE  OF  A  VARIOUS  READING. 

words,  for  example,  or  such  as  alter  not  the  sense ; 
and  of  this  sort  there  are  many. 
Kuster,  ib. 

705.  Fourth,  such  readings  as  are  both  real  and 
important,  as  making  an  alteration  in  the  sense  ;  and 
these  are  not  very  numerous. 

Kuster,  ib.     Whitby  partit.  §  4. 

706.  This  division  of  various  readings,  when  put 
into  accurate  expressions,  amounts  to  no  more  than, 
that  some  are  genuine,  and  some  corruptions,  some 
important,  and  some  trivial  ;  but  it  does  not  imply 
that  all  these  sorts  are  not  truly  various  readings. 

707.  To  speak  properly ;  wherever,  in  two  copies 
of  a  writing,  there  is  a  difference,  that  difference 
forms  a  various  reading ;  except  only  when  it  regards 
merely  the  manner  of  syllabication. 

Kuster,  ib.    Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  6.  sect.  4. 

ipijvi)  or  £tp*}ii]y  ctvrei  or  ctvTtj  ei^ti  or  ept^,  xeit  or  xf,  &c. 

708.  Every  reading,  different  from  what  was  orig- 
inally written  by  the  author,  is  a  false  reading  or  a 
corruption  ;  and  every  various  reading  shows  that 
there  is  a  corruption  in  some  of  the  copies  ;  for  two 
different  readings  cannot  both  be  the  original  one  of 
the  author  ;  but  every  various  reading  is  not  itself  a 
corruption,  for  it  may  be  the  very  one  which  proceed- 
ed from  the  author. 


SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS.         215 


SECT.  II. 

The  Sources  of  False  Readings, 

709.  For  determining  between  various  readings^  it 
is  of  great  use  to  know  the  sources  of  false  readings  ; 
which  are  reducible  to  two,  Chance,  and  Design. 

Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  6.  sect.  6,  &c.      De  Rossi,  Var.  Lect. 
Frol. 

710.  To  chance  are  to  be  ascribed  all  the  mistakes 
made  by  a  transcriber,  without  his  intending  them  at 
the  time,  or  perceiving  them  afterwards. 

711.  Haste  and  carelessness  have  produced  many 
mistakes,  might  introduce  false  readings  of  every  pos- 
sible sort,  and  have  rendered  some  copies  extremely 
inaccurate. 

712.  A  transcriber  might  become  inattentive  and 
absent ;  and  write,  not  what  was  in  his  copy,  but  what- 
ever he  happened  then  to  be  thinking  of;  to  which 
cause  have  been  owing  some  false  readings,  and  from 
which  might  proceed  such  as  seem  the  most  unaccount- 
ble. 

Pfaff.  de  gen.  lect.  N.  T.  c.  8.  §  3. 

713.  For  discerning,  fully,  the  occasions  of  false 
readings,  it  ought  to  be  observed,  that,  as  a  transcrib- 
er sometimes   wrote   from  a   copy   before  him,  so,  at 


216  SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

Other  times,  he  wrote  from  the  mouth  of  a  person  who 
dictated  to  several  at  once  ;  in  both  which  cases  mis- 
takes might  arise  from  reading  wrong ;  and^  in  the 
latter,  also,  from  hearing  wrong. 

Pfaff.  ib      Michael.  Int.  lect.  §  15. 

714.  Many  letters,  both  in  Hebrew  and  in  Greek, 
are  similar  in  figure,  and  more  were  similar  according 
to  the  modes  of  writing  used  in  some  ages,  than  now  ; 
such  letters  might  easily  be,  and  have  often  been,  put 
one  for  another  ;  and  acquaintance  with  the  several 
successive  modes  of  writing  will  show,  both  the  occa- 
sions of  false  readings,  thence  arising,  and  the  times 
of  their  introduction. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  19,  167.      Lowth's  Isa.  Prel.  Diss.  p.  57. 

Pfaft:  ib. 
D,  D.  Psal.  cii.  6.  C03— -DDD,  1  MS.— 0133,  3  MSS. 

Ken.  in  loc.  Diss.  Gen.  §  84,  13. 
3,  D.  2  Kings  XX.  12.  ■JiJ^")^,  but  Isa.  xxxix.  1.  pNin. 
n,  X  Gen.  iii.  17.  pnr^,  "  for  thy  sake."  "jnn^'^, « in  thy  work." 

70.  Vulg.      Num.  ii.  14.  bxin— but  ch.  i.  14.  vii.  42.  x.  20. 

hi^yV"^.     2  Sam.  viii.  3.  iTimn— but  1  Chron.  wiii.  3.  •lrn^^, 

Jon.  i.  9.  n^r,  "  hebrew," — n^j;,  "  servant  of  Jehovah."  70. 

1  MS.     Ken.  in  loc.  et  Diss.  Gen.  §  25.     Gen  xxii.  13.  nn><, 

"  behind"--inx.  70. 
1,  n.  Song  iv.  9.  nnxn— nnx2.  22  MSS.    Isa.  Ixvi.  7.  inx— 

r\n5<.     Keri.  32  Mj?S.     Ken.  et  Lovvth  in  loc. 
n,  n.  Gen.  xiv.  5.  ann,  "  with  them."     So  the  Heb.  Sam.  70 — 

buttZDHD,  "in  Ham."      7  ^am.  MSS.  Eng.  and  this  is  the 

preferable  reading.     Ken.  in  loc.  et  Diss.  Gen.  §  84,  13. 
n,  X  Isa.  vi.  11.  nt?i:*n,  "be  desolated"— "^XKTi,  "be  left."  70. 

Vulg     Lowth  in  loc. 
n,  n.    Isa.    xxiv.   5.    n-^in   "  laws"— niin  «  law."      70.   Syr. 

rhal.l. 


SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS.  217 

n,  p.  Ruth  iv.  20.  n::bky— V.  2i.  paSiy. 
n,  1J.  2  Sam.  V.  1.  UJn— 1  Chron.  xi.  l.njn. 
1,  \  Psal.  xxiv.  4.     VJ3J  "his  soul'* — *'^Di  "my  soul,"  Keri, 
which  is  wrong,      lix.  10.  non  "  his  mercy" — "\Dr\  "  my 
mercy,"     Keri.  Eng.  which  is  right, 
f,  •].  Psal.  xxii  27.     yjijS '•  before  thee"— VJdS  "before  him," 
1  MS.  70,  connexion.      Zech.  xiv.  5.  p;?  "  with  thee" — ID^ 
"  with  him,"  37  MSS.  connexion. 
715.  Many  false    readings  have  arisen  from  con- 
founding letters  or  words  similar  in  sound  ;  especiallyj 
by  reason  of  indistinctness  either  in  pronouncing  or  in 
hearing,  when  one  dictated,  and  others  wrote. 

ah  is  put  for  iS  15  times,  and  )h  for  i^h  twice,  according  to  the 
Masora;  perhaps  oftener. 

Isa.  ix.  3.  «S  "  not  multiplied" — iS  "  multiplied  their,^^  Keri. 
12  MSS.  Syr.  Chald.  connexion,  and  therefore  right. — Lev. 
xi.  21.  "  Which  have  not  (J<S)  legs" — )b  "to  which  are  legs," 
Keri.  Sam.  — ^  MSS.  70.  Vulg.  Eng.  the  sense  requires  this 
reading,  isa.  xxxii.  3.  T\:y^r\  xSi  «  and  the  eyes — shall  not 
be  dim."  Eng.  lSl  "  and  him — shall  regard." 
Lowth  in  loc. 

2  Kings  viii.  10.  Elisha  bids  Hazael  say  (xS)  "thou  shalt  not 
recover."  So  it  is  in  the  text,  and  is  right ;  but  the  Keri, 
and  several  MSS.  have  it  iS  "  ^o /ii?n,  thou  shalt  recover," 
which  is  wrong,  and  gives  an  equivocal  sense,  but  is  followed 
in  the  Eng.  Vers. 
Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  163,  and  in  loc. 

Mar.  V.  14.  eyst^ui,  which  is  right — but  eystpe  in  several  MSS. 
and  Edit.  Mill  in  loc.  Kuster  Prsef.  Griesbach  in  loc. 
So  also  Rev.  xi.  1.  (lid.)  Mat.  xi.  16.  iT^t^^o/s,  right ;  but 
Ire/io/s  in  several  MSS.  (lid.)  Gal.  iv.  18.  <^>jAsr^fi6/  right; 
but  ^JjAoyc-^e,  Vulg.  (lid.)  Luke  ii.  12.  ev^a-ure -,  but  evprjTs- 
rxi,  in  4  MSS.  Aid.  (lid.)  Jam.  iv.  12.  ers^ov,  right;  proba- 
bly some  wrote  erxipov ;  hence  the  j2;loss  tt^tjtiov,  which  is  in 
the  Alex,  and  several  other  MSS.  Vulg.  Syr.  Copt,  ^thiop. 
(lid.)  1  John  iv.  2.  ytvuc-KerB,  "  ye  know  ;"  but  ytmrxerecty 
28 


218  SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

"is  known," — in  several  MSS.  and  Vers,  either  is  suitable, 
(lid.)  Heb.  xi.  37.  eTpia-C^trxv,  "sawn  asunder,"  right;  but 
eTrpuT^na-ecv^  "burnt,"  Cyril.  Jer.  (Mill  in  loc.  Pfaff,  p  145.) 
2  Cor.  xii.  1.  ^Uy  right;  ^ei,  several  MSS.  Ital.  Vulg.  Syr. 
(Mill,  in  loc.) 

Mat.  XX.  15.  H  (J  o(p6oiXi^oq ;— EI,  12  MSS.  (Mill  in  loc  ) 

Mat  xi.  ^2.  <^t/d; — hx,  1  MS.  Syr.  Pers.  Goth.  Armen  Ital  per- 
haps right,  altered  from  Luke  vii.  19. 
(Mill  in  loc.  and  Proleg.  387.) 

1  Cor.  ix.  27,  vTaTrixt^a,  " to  chastise  or  keep  under;"  Alex, 
and  most  MSS.  Vulg.  Ethiop.  most  Fathers  and  Edit  ufroyrt- 
«^«,  "  to  make  blue,"  all  Steph.  6  others  Aid.  1  Erasm. 
Colin.  vTOTirie^a^  "  to  emaciate  with  hunger,"  9  MSS.  Clem. 
Alex.  Nazian. 

Mill.  Proleg.  1204.     Kuster  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 

Ch.  XV  49.  (po^eo-ofA^ev,  "shall  bear,"  many  MSS.  Syr.  Arab. 
Ethiop  Origen.  Theodoret;  this  is  the  common  reading,  and 
suits  the  context ; — but  <pep£<raf4.ev,  Alex.  19  others.  2  Edit, 
most  Fathers,  wrong. 

Mill.  Proleg.  1S19.     Kuster  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 

1  Cor.  xiii.  3.  Kotv6woii4.xiy  "burnt,"  right; — but  Kxvx^o'UfjtMty 
"glory,"  Alex.  Jer.     (Mill  and  Griesb  in  loc.) 

716.  A  transcriber  sometimes  gave  a  false  reading, 
by  writing  a  word,  while  the  sound  of  a  preceding 
word  was  still  in  his  ears,  or  in  his  mind. 

Michael.  §  15. 

Rom.  i.  30.  ««r«AseAii5,  right;  but  KxicoXxXm,  2  MSS.  after  xuko- 
7,6iiu^.     Mill  and  Griesb,  in  loc.) 

717.  A  transcriber,  having  read  or  heard  a  whole 
clause  at  once,  and  retaining  the  sense,  but  forgetting 
some  of  the  precise  words,  wrote  a  synonymous  word 
instead  of  what  he  had  in  his  copy ;  to  this  head  be- 
long very  many  various  readings. 


SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS.  2l9 

Whitby  Exam.  Millii,  I.  3.  §  2—9. 

Mat.  ii    11   'Evp^f,  "they  found;'*  but  e<^o»,  "  they  saw,"  in 
most  MSS   Veis.  and  Quotat.  some  Edit,  right. 
Mill,  Kust.  and  Griesb.  in   loc.      Whitby  Exam.  1.  2. 
c.  2.  §  1, 

Ch.  iii.  8.  Koi^'riii — KxpTTov.  X.  28.  ^oQv)6tire — <pQ^eia-es.  xii.  32. 
rara  ra  xiavi—rof  vvv  etiavi.  xvii.  21.  eKTropevercAi  —  e|£^;t£T««/. 
xxiii.  8.  KuSnyiiriii — h^xa-KxXoq.  Mar.  i.  16.  ^s^iTrurav — 
TTX^xyedv.  ii.  4.  "fTpoTsyytcrxi — ^poTevsyxxt.  viii.  34.  e7r<o*ft> 
eXhtv — XKoXa&eiv,      Luke  vii.  24.  xyyeXat — fjLoc&7)Tm. 

718.  A  reader^  or  a  transcriber,  casting  his  eye  on 
a  preceding  line  or  word,  and  not  observing  the  mis- 
take, would  write  over  again  what  he  had  written  al- 
ready ;  which  would  especially  happen,  when  in  the 
place  on  which  he  happened  to  cast  his  eye  he  found 
the  same,  or  similar  words  or  letters,  as  he  had  last 
written. 

Exod.  XXX.  6.  mj»n  ^V  '^^^  mi33n  ^JsS,  "  before  the  mercy  seat 
that  is  over  the  testimony."  This  is  wanting  in  18  JViSJS. 
Sam.  and  70 ;  it  is  repeated  from  the  former  clause,  and,  by 
changing  nj-ian,  "  veil,"  into  miDDn,  "  mercy  seat,"  is  con- 
tradictory to  it,  and  to  Heb.  ix.  7. 
Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  p.  70.  n. 

719.  If  he  cast  his  eye  on  a  word  or  a  line  subse- 
quent to  where  he  was  writing,  and  especially,  if  he 
there  found  a  word  similar  to  what  he  had  written 
last,  or  to  what  he  should  have  written  next,  he  would 
readily  write  from  that  subsequent  place,  omitting  all 
that  intervened. 

Mat.  XXviii.  9.  *0«  h  fro^evhro  AHArrEIAAI  TOIS  MA0H- 
TAIS  ATTOr.  Omitted,  from  this  cause,  in  several  M•^:^. 
Vulg.  Jsyr.  Copt.     Armen.    Pers.    Arab.      Chrysost.     Jer. 


220  SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

August.     Maik  xi.  26.  omitted,  from  the  same  cause,  in  3 
M8^-.  Copt.  Edit.  Aid.  and  Frob.     (iVhll  in  loc.  and  Prol. 

875.) 

720.  A  person  having  written  one  or  more  words 
from  a  wrong  place^  and  not  observing  it,  or  not 
choosing  to  erase  it^  might  return  to  the  right  line, 
and  thus  produce  an  improper  insertion  of  a  word,  or  a 
clause. 

]V3at,  xxvi.  60.  The  first  «y;ti  Ivpov,  is  wanting  in  one  M!^.  and 
is  superfluous  and  improper.  (K.uster.  Prsef.)  Griesb.  in 
loc. 

Mar.  iv.  18.  The  second  ovroi  siTtv,  wanting  in  Alex,  and  40 
other  MSS.  Copt.  Goth.  Arab.  Theophjlact.  and  is  super- 
fluous.    (Mill.  Kuster  and  Griesb.  in  loc.) 

John  vii.  26.  The  second  u^ajfiai  wanting  in  11  MSS.  Vulg. 
Armen.  Arab.  Orig.  Chrys.  Cyril.  Epiphan. — the  first  is 
wanting  in  3  MSS.  Syr  Copt.  Pers.  Ethiop.  (Mill.  Grot, 
and  Griesb.  in  loc.     PfafF.  p.  166.) 

1  Cor.  X.  28.  Toy  yet^  xvpiov  ^  yv,  &c.  wanting  in  Alex,  and  10 
other  MSS.  Vulg.  Syr.  Ethiop.  Arab.  Copt.  Complut.  Ed. 
they  are  superfluous,  and  were  probably  inserted  from  v.  26. 
(Mill,  and  Griesb.  in  loc.) 

2  Cor.  xii  7.  The  second  tvu.  ,«,3}  vTrepetipafjLott  wanting  in  Alex, 
and  5  other  M^S.  Vulg.  Ethiop  Iren.  Aug.  they  are  super- 
fluous.    (Mill,  and  Kuster.  in  loc  and  Prol.  1205.) 

Isa.xlviii.il.  'i^d^  redundant;  it  is  wanting  in  1  MS.  70. 
Syr.  perhaps  it  has  been  taken  in  from  v.  9.  (Lowth  in  loc.) 
— 'Diy  "my  name"  is  added  in  1  Mb.  70.  Eng.  and  is  right, 

721.  When   a   transcriber  had   made  an   omission, 

and  afterwards  observed  it,  he  then  subjoined  what  he 

had  omitted,  and  thus  produced  a  transposition. 

Mat.  V.  4.  is  subjoined  to  v.  5.  in  Camb.  Vulg.  Jerom.     Luke 

xxiii.  17.  is  omitted  in  Alex,  and  1  other;   it  is  subjoined  to 

V.  19.  in  Camb. 


SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS.  221 

Rom.  i.  29.  is  very  different  in  different  copies. 

ecStKiet,  Trepvetoi^  Tcon^tec,  ^Xeove^ict,  kockiu.      Common  Edit. 
etSiKtai,,  7rovi]piei,  xetKicc^  9rA£eV£|/a:.      Alex.      Etlliop. 

etSiKiet,  KotKiot^  TTtpvttet^  TrXeeve^itK,     Clermont. 
uStKtec,  ^ovtjpiot^  TTo^vetec,  TrXeois^tae,  ksckiu.      Vulg. 
tthKieCf  ^o^vei^y  TTovijpt^,  KoiKias^  TrMove^tu.      Syi'. 

Mill.    Kust.  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 

722.  From  these  occasions  of  false  readings,  several 
principles  may  be  deduced;  for  deciding  concerning 
various  readings. 

JVIichael.  §  17.    Marsh's  Michael,  ib.  sect.  13. 

723.  If  a  reading  which  is  easily  accounted  for 
from  an  usual  blunder  of  a  transcriber,  be  found  only 
in  a  few  manuscripts,  it  is,  in  all  probability,  a  false 
reading. 

724.  If  a  reading  which  yields  no  sense,  or  suits  not 
the  connexion,  or  disagrees  with  other  texts,  can  be 
naturally  accounted  for  by  an  ordinary  mistake  of  tran- 
scribers, it  is  a  false  reading. 

2  Sam.  xxi.  19.  "Elhanan,  the  son  of  Lmre-Oregim.^*  ("ij'' 
tZJ':i*lK)  this  is  wrong;  in  I  Chron.  xx.  5.  it  is  "y^T ;  but  the 
Keri  is  "^V,  which  is  probably  right ;  whence  ^^T  and  n^" — 
n3*a*i5<  "  weavers ;"  this  word  is  taken  from  the  end  of  the 
verse. — "  A  Bethlehemite  ('nnSn  r\'2)  slew  Goliah."  This 
is  not  true  ;  see  1  Sam.  xvii.  50.  But  in  1  Chron.  xx.  5.  it 
is,  "  slew  Lahmi,  the  brother  of  Goliah,"  'JsnS — nx  "HN  which 
is  right,  and  accounts  for  the  mistakes  in  feamuel ;  r\i<  being 
changed  into  n*3 — n  prefixed  for  forming  a  regular  local 
name,  and  'ni<{  changed  into  nx. 


222         SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

725.  Among  different  readings,  that  is,  probably, 
the  genuine  one,  from  which  the  others  may  have  ea- 
sily arisen,  but  which  could  not  so  naturally  arise  from 
them. 

726.  Hence,  the  most  unusual  reading  is,  generally, 
the  true  ;  for  a  transcriber  would  not  so  readily  write 
it  by  mistake,  as  one  to  which  he  was  more  accustom- 
ed. 

Michael.  §  17. 

2  Sam.  xxiii.  36.  "  Igal  the  sow  of  Nathan,"  but  1  Chron.  xi. 
38.  "  Joel  the  brother  of  Nathan,"  which  is  probably  right. 
bt^V  is  in  all  the  ancient  versions,  and  might  as  readily  pro- 
duce "7^:%  as  be  produced  by  it.  "Brother"  is  a  relation 
less  frequently  expressed  than  "son,"  and  therefore  less 
likely  to  be  put  by  mistake ;  and  there  were  two  Joels  at  this 
time,  but  neither  the  son  of  Nathan. 
Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  213. 

727.  Hence,  too,  the  fuller  reading  generally  is  the 
genuine,  whenever  there  is  no  particular  reason  to  sus- 
pect an  interpolation ;  for  a  letter,  a  word,  or  a  sen- 
tence, may  be  more  easily  omitted  than  added,  when 
there  is  nothing  to  suggest  the  addition. 

1    Chron.   xi.   32.      Sx^3X  "Abiel;"    but   2   Sam.  xxiii.  31. 

jnVoN  "  Abialbon,"  which  is  right ;    |i:i  might  be  easily 

omitted  or  defaced. 
V.  56.  n^nJ<  "  Ahijah,"  but  2  Sam.  xxii.  34.  San^HN   j3  D^'Sx 

"Eliam,   the  son  of  Achithophel."      This  last  is  the  right 

reading ;  the  two  first  words  might  be  easily  omitted  from  a 

siuiilar  beginning,  n  changed  intoH,  and  Sd  defaced. 
Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  194,  207. 
Mat.  ii.  I.  ev  .fJLipuii  'Wpuhv  rov  ^ottriXea^  is  wanting  in  several 

MS?i. ;  but  genuine.     (Mill,  and  Griesb.  in  loc.)     2  Pet.  iii. 

5.  ei^TTociKTxi ;    but  £v  ef^Trxtyf^ovvi  ef^'^utKTxt  in  Alex,  and  8 


SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS.  223 

other  MSS.  Vulg.  Syr.  Arab.  Ethiop.  Aug.  Jer.  and  is 
right.  (Mill,  in  loc.  and  Proi.  925.  Estius  and  Griesb.  in 
loc.) 

728.  The  second  source  of  false  readings  is  design ; 
to  which  are  to  be  ascribed  such  as  are  made  know- 
ingly and  wilfully,  and  such  as,  having  been  made 
accidentally,  are  wilfully  suffered  to  remain,  after 
being  perceived. 

729.  Mistakes  accidentally  made,  have  often  been 
designedly  permitted  to  remain  uncorrected,  that  the 
beauty  or  price  of  the  manuscript  might  not  be  lessen- 
ed by  blotting. 

Lowth's  Isa.    Prel.  Diss.  p.  58. 

730.  Many  false  readings  are  owing  to  assimilation ; 
when  a  transcriber  had  once  found  or  written  a  word 
wrong,  he  purposely  altered  that,  or  related  words, 
in  conformity  to  the  mistake. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  374,  415,  &c.  Diss.  Gen.  §  18,  84. 

n^J  "  a  boj,"  is  21  times,  in  the  Pentateuch,  put  for  n'-)};^  "  a 
girl  ;*'  which  last  is  found  but  once,  Deut.  xxii.  19.  and 
there,  too,  '^];2  is  found  in  12  MSS.  But  the  Masora  points 
as  n'^;;j,  and  directs  it  to  be  read  so.  It  seems  impossible 
that  this  could  have  happened  so  often,  by  chance ;  it  must 
have  been  by  assimilation. 

1  Kings  viii  30.  "  hear  to  (Sk)  heaven  ;'*  but  2  Chron.  vi.  21. 
"from,*'  (p,)  which  is  right.  In  v.  32,  34,  56,  39,  43,  45,  49, 
]D  is  wanting,  by  assimilation ;  but  it  is  necessary. 

Ezek.  xl.  '  the  sign  of  the  plural  before  the  suffixed  ),  is  omit- 
ted in  34  words,  by  assimilation;  the  Keri  adds  them  in 
all  MSS. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  p.  IIT.  et  in  loc. 


224  SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

731.  Critical  transcribers  sometimes  transferred 
what  they  thought  a  clearer  or  fuller  expression,  or 
added  a  circumstance,  to  one  place,  from  a  parallel 
passage ;  a  liberty  often  taken,  especially  in  the  Gos- 
pels ;  and,  therefore,  of  two  readings,  (particularly  in 
the  Gospels,)  one  of  v/hich  is  exactly  conformable  to 
a  correspondent  passage,  and  the  other  not,  but  yet 
consistent  with  it,  the  latter  is  preferable. 

Mat.  xii.  8.  icxt  is  wanting  in  above  30  MSS.  Syr.  Pers.  Arab. 
Ethiop.  Erasm.  1  Ed.  Aid  it  has  been  taken  from  Mark,  or 
Luke,  as  emphatical.  (Mill.  Kust.  Griesbach.  in  loc  )  V. 
35.  rm  ycccp^icci  is  wanting  in  all  Stephens's  MSS.  except  one, 
and  near  40  others ;  in  Vulg.  Syr.  Copt.  Pers.  Arab,  and 
some  quotations  ;  it  has  been  taken  from  Luke  vi.  45.  where 
it  is  found  in  most  MSS.  (lid.  in  loc.)  Ch.  xx.  22,  23,  ic<ti 
TO  ^UTtrri'J'fJuit,  0  tyoa  (ixTrri^of^xt,  fi»7rTto-6i}Vcci  ; — ^0C7rTia-$i}cretrdSy 
is  wanting  in  several  MSS.  Vulg.  Ethiop.  Copt,  and  most 
quotations ;  it  has  been  taken  from  Mark  x.  38,  59.  (Mill, 
and  Griesb.  in  loc.) 

Mat.  xxvii.  35.  Ivct  TrMp^^tj,  «,  r,  A.  to  the  end  of  the  verse,  is 
wanting  in  all  Stephens's,  Alex,  and  56  others.  Syr.  Copt. 
Ethiop.  Arab,  most  copies  of  Vulg.  and  in  many  quotations  ; 
it  has  been  taken  from  John  xix.  24.  (Mill.  Kust.  Griesb. 
in  loc.)  Mat.  ii.  17.  uq  f^erxvoixv,  wanting  in  Alex,  and  9 
others.  Vulg.  Syr.  Copt.  Goth.  Pers.  Ethiop.  Armen.  and 
in  Mat,  ix.  13.;  it  is  wanting  in  6  MSS.  and  the  same  ver- 
sions ;  it  has  been  taken  from  Luke  v.  32.  where  it  is  found 
in  all  MSS.  and  versions,  (lid.)  Luke  iv.  S.CTrxye  oTriTa  t^ov 
1,xretvx — yxp,  wanting  in  several  MSS.  all  versions  and  quo- 
tations ;  it  lias  been  taken  either  from  Mat.  iv.  10.  or  rather, 
because  wanting  there  in  most  MSS.  and  in  Vulg.  Syr.  from 
Mat.  xvi.  23.  (Gi  ot.  Mill.  Kust.  Griesb.  in  loc.)  John.  vi. 
11.  T«/5  f^xhrxiiy  oi  h  fix6r,Txi,  wanting  in  Alex,  and  4  other 
MSS.  Vulg.  Syr.  Goth.  Copt.  Pers.  Arab.  Ethiop.  it  has  been 
taken  from  the  other  Gospels,    (lid.  et  Erasm.  Zeger,  in  loc.) 


SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS.         225 

732.  Critics  sometimes  corrected  the  New  Testa- 
ment from  the  Greek  version  of  the  Old  ;  and,  there- 
fore, when  one  reading  of  a  quotation  agrees  exactly 
with  that  version,  and  another  not  so  exactly,  the 
former,  if  not  well  supported,  is  suspicious,  and  the 
latter  preferable. 

Michael.  §  18. 

Luke  iv    8.  tecTx<r6»i  rcv^  (TvvreTpif^.ft.evevi    Ti}9  Kxphocv,  is  wanting 

in  several  MSS.  and  versions ;   it  has  probably  been  taken 
from  the  70.     (Mill,  et  Griesb.) 

733.  Critics  sometimes  altered  the  text  of  the  New 
Testament,  in  conformity  to  the  Vulgate  version  ;  and 
readings  plainly  arising  from  this  cause,  deserve  no 
regard. 

Macknight  on  Epistles,  Gen.  Pref.  Sect.  1 . 

734.  Critics  sometimes  introduced  alterations,  or 
additions,  into  a  passage,  from  what  goes  before  or 
after. 

Mat.  V.  18.  Kcct  Tft>v  Trpoiptirav  is  added  in  some  MSS.  and  in 
Armen.  et  Irense. — from  v.  17.  (Mill,  et  Griesb.  in  loc.)  Ch. 
vi.  18.  ev  ^xvspo)  is  wanting  in  above  50  MSS,  and  all  versions 
except  the  Ethiop. — it  has  been  taken  from  v.  4,  6.  where, 
too,  it  is  wanting  in  many  copies,  and  therefore  probably  a 
gloss.  (Kust.  et  lid.  in  loc.)  Ch.  xxv.  13.  sv  t)  o  6ioi  rou 
ecvOpa^ev  ff;%;;5T«/,  is  wanting  in  Alex,  and  12  others;  in  Vulg. 
Syr.  Copt.  Pers.  Arab.  Ethiop.  and  quotations  ;  it  has  been 
taken  from  the  preceding  chapter.  (lid.  in  loc.)  Mark  vi. 
12.  after  e|e7rAj;<r<rovr<»  is  added  £7r<  T»)  h^ct^ri  ccvrov  in  some 
MSS.  and  Vulg. — from  ch.  i.  22.  (lid.  in  loc.) 

735.  Critics  sometimes  altered  their  copies,  with 
a  view  to  correct  some  word  in  them  which  they  un- 
derstood not;  or  reckoned  faulty  ;   and  therefore,  when 

29 


226        SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

of  two  readings  one  is  perfectly  clear,  and  the  other 
difficultj  or  obscure,  but  such  as  may  be  explained  by 
the  help  of  antiquity,  or  perfect  knowledge  of  the  lan- 
guage, the  former  is  suspicious,  and  the  latter  is  pro- 
bably genuine. 

JVJichael.  §  15.     Marshes  Michael,  ch.  6.  sect.  11. 

Luke  xvi.  9.  f^xf^m/vu.  rtj^  uhyciot^,  changed  into  aSiKH  fjLUfjLmos, 
in  the  Camb.  MS. — sKXtTnjre,  or  efcXeiTnjre ;  this  is  the  right 
reading  ;  it  has  indeed  an  unusual  sense,  but  is  found  in  the 
70. — changed  into  eKXsiTn,,  or  fjcA/^rsi,  in  the  Alex.  Camb. 
Syr.  Pers.  Ethiop.  (Mill,  et  Griesb.  in  loc.)  Acts  xxi,  3. 
um<pocnvr£i,  this  is  the  common  reading,  and  best  supported ; 
but  changed  into  ccvu<^civciVT£<i  in  some  copies ;  this,  however, 
is  irregular,  and  therefore  corrected  into  uvoc(pyivccvr$^.  (Mill, 
in  loc.  et  Prol.  1262.) 

736.  Critical  transcribers  sometimes  omitted  words 
which  they  reckoned  superfluous. 

Mark  vii.  37.  rov^  a.Xu.'Kovc,  is  omitted  in  1  MS.  Ch  x.  19  jm.jj 
uTTccTijpijc-i}^,  omitted  in  6  MSS.  and  in  Arm.  it  seems  included 
in  ie.Xf>^my  and  is  not  in  the  other  gospels.  (Mill,  et  Griesb. 
in  loc.) 

737.  Critics,  in  transcribing,  sometimes  added 
words  for  illustrating  what  they  thought  defective  or 
improper. 

Luke  i.  64.  hrjp6pah,  "  was  loosed,"  is  added  in  Camb.  and 
Compl. ;  it  seemed  improper  to  say  that  the  "  tongue"  was 
"  opened."     (Grot.  Mill.  Kust.  Griesb.  in  loc.) 

738.  It  was  common  to  write  alterations,  or  addi- 
tions, for  the  sake  of  illustration,  as  glosses  on  the  mar- 
gin, whence  transcribers,  afterwards,  sometimes  took 
them  into  the  text  ;  and,  for  this  reason,  the  fuller 
reading,  whenever  it  could  serve  for  illustration,  or 


SOURCES  OP  FALSE  READINGS.  227 

correction,   is   generally    suspicious,  and  to    be   re- 
jected. 

Wetstein,  prol.  c.  16.  can.  9.     Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  18,  3. 

Mat.  vi.  33.  There  is  added  in  some  copies  ciireire  roc  fA.ey»Xct, 
Kcti  Tec  /AiKpx  vf^iv  '^poTreCijTeratr  -xcci  ecireire  roc  tTrapocvtu,  x.xt  roc 
tviytioc  vf^iv  7rpo(rre6i}<rerxt^  and  in  Orig.  contra  Cels.  I.  7.  et 
de  Orat.  Clem.  Alex.  Strom.  1.  but  it  is  a  gloss.  (Mill,  in 
loc.  et  Prol.  695.  Whitby,  Exam.  1.  2.  s.  1.  §  3.  Griesb.  in 
loc.) 

Mark.  i.  16.  echxfpa^  avm — m  'Zi{A.mo(i  is  added  in  all  Stephens's, 
in  32  others,  and  R.  Steph.  Edit. — ^JjA^ov  S;/tt«yo5  in  1  MS. 
m  ^tf^uvoq  in  1  MS. — uvm^ii^moi  in  1  MS. — it  is  a  gloss  for 
removing  the  ambiguity.     (Mill.  Kust.  et  Griesb  in  loc.) 

Luke  vii.  16.  Xxev  ecvm. — f/5  eiyet6ov  is  added  in  11  MSS.  Arab. 
Arm. — it  is  a  gloss.     (Mill,  et  Griesb.  in  loc) 

1  Cor.  V.  6.  and  Gal.  v.  9  Z^h-oi  is  the  reading  in  almost  all 
copies  ;  yet  perhaps  it  is  a  gloss.  AoXoi  "  corrupteth,*'  is 
found  in  Clerm.  gr.  et  lat.  Germ.  lat.  Vulg.  Iren.  and  other 
quotations.  In  Gal.  ^eAo<  ^v/mi  are  both  found  in  Clerm.  gr. 
The  former  word  is  used  by  the  apostle  in  2  Cor.  iv.  2.  but 
in  the  above  places  was,  perhaps,  not  understood,  or  thought 
improper. 

739.  Persons  have  sometimes  made  alterations  in 
the  copies  of  Scripture,  with  a  wilful  intention  of 
corrupting  them,  in  order  to  answer  some  particular 
purpose. 

Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  6.  §  12. 

740.  It  has  been  a  question,  Whether  the  Jews 
have,  in  any  instance,  wilfully  corrupted  the  Old  Tes- 
tament ?  It  is  denied,  because  of  their  veneration  for 
the  Scriptures,  their  not  being  accused  of  it  by  Christ, 
the  impossibility  of  their  doing  it  afterwards  without 
detection,  and  their  having  left  so  many  predictions 


228        SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

favourable  to  Christianity.  But,  it  is  answered,  that 
their  veneration  for  the  Scriptures  gives  no  absolute 
security  ;  that  there  are  good  reasons  for  Christ's  not 
accusing  them,  though  guilty ;  that  they  might  hope 
to  avoid  detection  by  the  ignorance  of  Hebrew  among 
the  first  Christians  :  that  the  earliest  who  understood 
it  do  charge  them  with  wilful  corruptions  ;  that  their 
not  going  all  lengths,  is  no  proof  that  they  have  at- 
tempted none;  that  evidence  of  a  single  instance,  would 
outweigh  all  general  arguments ;  and  that,  though 
the  charge  against  them  has  sometimes  been  carried 
too  far,  yet,  there  is  sufficient  evidence  that,  for  the 
honour  of  their  own  nation,  or  from  hatred  to  Chris- 
tianity, they  have  wilfully  corrupted  some  texts,  and, 
in  others,  given  the  preference  to  false  readings,  which 
had  at  first  arisen  from  other  causes.  • 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  275.  Diss.  2.  p.  349.  Diss,  Gen.  §  21,  24,  66, 
67,  68,  76,  84. 

Judg.  xviii.  SO.  "  the  son  of  (niJOrs)  Manasseh."  Heb.  70.  but 
wilfully  corrupted  from  HK^D,  for  the  honour  of  Moses.  This 
is  confessed  by  R.  Solomon  Jarchi,  and  confirmed  by  the 
several  irregular  ways  of  writing  the  2,  and  by  the  agreement 
in  time.  Vulg.  MSS.  of  70.  (Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  51.  Diss.  Gen. 
§  21.  cod.  490,  614.  et  in  loc.) 

Deut.  xxvii.  26.  "  that  confirmeth  not  the  words ;"  but  it  is 
quoted.  Gal.  iii.  10.  "  all  the  words,"  which  is  necessary  for 
the  argument,  and  hj  is  found  in  4  Heb.  MSS.  6  Chald. 
MSS.  Samar.  and  its  version,  and  70.  It  has  been  omitted, 
that  the  Jews  might  not  seem  to  be  under  the  curse,  or  in 
opposition  to  Paul.  (Ken.  in  loc.  et  Diss.  2.  p.  47.  Diss.  Gen. 
§  81,  84,  85.) 

Josh.  XV.  59.  Eleven  cities  are  here  mentioned  in  70,  one  of 
which  is  E(p(>ct6cc,  uvttj  im  ButOXteju.  They  were  probably 
at  first  omitted  in  the  Hebrew,  by  means  of  the  last  woird 


SOURCES  OF  FALSE  READINGS.         229 

being  also  before  this  clause  ;  but  the  omission  has  been  con- 
tinued, because  Bethlehem  (the  birth-place  of  the  Messiah, 
Mic.  V.  2.)  is  no  where  else  called  Ephrathah.  (Ken.  Diss. 
2.  p.  57.  Diss.  Gen.  §  84. 
Isa.  lii.  14.  y^V,  "  at  thee."  This  reading  confounds  the  pre- 
diction, by  the  change  of  person ;  but  yhv  is  found  in  2 
MSS.  Syr.  Chald.  Vulg.  MSS.  Aqu.  it  is  so  translated  in  the 
Eng.  of  Coverdale,  and  in  Edit.  1537,  1540,  1566,  and  is 
right.  It  might  have  been  altered  by  chance,  but  probably 
by  design,  as  the  alteration  is  also  made  in  the  70.  (Ken. 
Diss.  Gen.  §  79.  p.  35.  n.  45.  n.  Lowth  in  loc.  Ch.  Isiv.  4. 
the  present  Hebrew  is  unintelligible  ;  it  has  been  corrupted, 
in  opposition  to  Paul's  quotation,  1  Cor.  ii.  9.  (Ken.  Diss. 
Gen.  §  84,  6,  7.     Lowth  in  loc.) 

741.  Some  false  readings,  though  not  so  many  as 
have  been  imputed  to  them  by  the  Fathers,  and  by- 
others  on  their  authority,  were  introduced,  or  attempt- 
ed, by  the  ancient  heretics,  purposely  in  favour  of  their 
errors ;  but  such  were  easily  detected,  and  soon  re- 
jected. 

Michael.  §15.     Pfaff'c.  11   §2.     Mill.  Prol.  passim. 

742.  The  prevailing  party  in  the  church,  who  have 
always  called  themselves  the  orthodox,  had  it  much 
more  in  their  power  to  introduce  and  transmit  false 
readings  ;  and  they  have  sometimes  introduced  them, 
and  oftener  given  them  the  preference  after  their  being 
accidentally  made,  on  purpose  to  favour  some  receiv- 
ed opinion,  or  to  preclude  an  objection  against  it. 

Michael.  Pfaff.  ib. 

Mat.  i.  18.  yrptit  jj  (rvv£X6stv  etvTUg,  and  V.  25.  tcvrtt^  rov  TrparoToxct, 
are  omitted  in  some  MSS  purposely,  but  unnecessarily,  in 
favour  of  the  perpetual  virginity.     (Mill,  et  Griesb.  in  loc.) 

Mar.  viii.  31.  Instead  of  f^sret  rpeig  tifAspxi,  4.  MSS.  have  ef  rri 
rpirvi  rifJLipct, — for  the  fact.     (Erasm.  Mill,  et  Griesb.  in  loc.) 


230  KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

Ch.  xiii  32.  cvh  o  vtog — omitted  in  some  copies,  and  rtyected 

by  some  Fathers,  as  favouring  the  Arians.     (Mill,  in  loc.  et 

Prol.  826.  Griesb.  in  loc) 
Luke  i.  35.  yevv6>^5vov,— EK  SOT  is  added  in  3  MSS.  Vulg. 

Syr.  Pers.  Arab,  several  quotations,  and  Eng. — against  the 

Eutychians.     (lid.  in  loc.  et  ib.) 
1  John  iv.  3.  After  o  fj^  o/Ao?^r>yei  tov  Umv  XpiPTov  ev  c-xpKi  eXtjXv' 

Gorety  is  added,  o  Xvei  (or  kxtuXvsi)  tov  lijimv,  in  1  MS.  Vulg. 

and  almost  all  quotations.     It  was  perhaps,  at  first,  a  gloss, 

and  afterwards  taken  into  the  teii.t,  in  opposition  to  Cerinthus 

and  Ebion. 

Mill,  in  loc.  et  Prol.  286,  501,  615,  846,  927",  928,  1320. 

743.  Mistaken  zeal  is  forward  to  impute  false  read- 
ings to  design  in  those  whom  it  opposes ;  but  we 
ought  not  to  ascribe  them  to  this  principle  rashly, 
where  they  might  have  naturally  arisen  from  chance, 
or  where  there  is  no  positive  presumption  or  evidence 
of  design. 

Mill.  Prol.  passim. 


SECT.  III. 


Of  the  Kinds  of  False  Readings. 

744.  False  readings  are  of  four  kinds, — Omissions, 
Additions, — Transpositions, — and  Alterations ;  and 
each  of  them  may  be  either  of  letters,  of  words,  or  of 
clauses. 

745.  It  will  be  useful  to  take  notice  of  some  of  the 
most  remarkable  ofeachkindj  especially  such  as  are 


KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS.  231 

found  either  in  several  MSS.,  in  received  versions, 
or  in  printed  editions  ;  pointing  out  how  they  have 
arisen,  and  how  they  are  corrected. 

746.  I.  Omissions  easily  happen  through  careless- 
ness, and  sometimes  have  been  made  by  design  ;  but 
always  alter,  pervert,  or  destroy  the  sense,  which  will 
be  restored  by  supplying  them. 

747.  1.  The  omission  of  a  single  letter  may  happen 
very  readily,  and  from  many  different  causes,  and  has 
happened  very  frequently  ;  but  is  often  of  great  im- 
portance. 

Num.  xxii.  5.  "  The  land  of  the  children  (inj;)  of  his  people;" 
this  is  unmeaning.  But  pDi?  "  Ammon,"  is  found  in  12 
MS-^.  Sam.  Syr.  Vulg.  and  is  right.  (Ken.  in  loc.  et  Diss. 
Gen.  p.  77    note  ) 

Ezek.  xxxiii.  21.  ^TWI  "in  the  twelfth  year;"  but  'ntr^^a 
"  eleventh,"  is  found  in  8  MSS.  and  in  Syr.  which  is  evi- 
dently right.  See  2  Kings  xxv.  8.  Ken.  in  loc.  et  ib.  §  105, 
179.  p.  83.  n.) 

748.  Sometimes  by  accident,  and  sometimes  de- 
signedly, when  the  introduction  of  the  vowel  points 
was  thought  to  render  them  unnecessary,  the  vowel 
letters,  in  particular,  have  been  improperly  omitted, 
especially  1  and  %  on  account  of  their  smallness  ;  and 
the  omission  has  produced  improper,  and  even  absurd 
readings. 

Job.  i.  16, 17.  nij^ ;  but  v.  18.  ny.     (Ken.  in  loc.  et  Diss.  Gen. 

§167. 
Ch.  ii.  11.  XX.  1.  ^QVi  ;  but  xi.  1.  xlii.  9.  '^£)]f.  (lid.  ib.) 
Josh.  xvii.  11.  n'niJ3i,  "and  her  towns,"  five  times  right;  but 

rrnJDl  once.     So  Judg.  i.  27.  four  times  right,  once  wrong. 

Judg.  ii.  7.  yB^irr— yiB'in'.     (lid,  ib.) 


232  KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

749.  The  improper  omission  of  )  vitiates  the  lan- 
guage, or  changes  the  sense,  by  altering  the  persons 
of  pronouns/  and  the  numbers  of  verbs/  by  taking 
away  the  copulative/  and  when  it  is  conversive,  turn- 
ing the  future  into  the  past/  by  suppressing  the  pos- 
sessive pronoun.* 

^  Zech.  xii.  10.  «  They  shall  look  (^Sn)  upon  me."  Heb.  70. 
Vulg.  but  this  is  wrong;  it  occasions  a  confusion  of  persons. 
The  true  reading  is  V'7N  "  upon  /liw,"  which  is  found  in  40 
MSS.  John  xix.  37. 

Ken.  in  loc.  Diss.  2.  p.  536.  Diss.  Gen.  §  43,  6^,  95,  150. 

*  Gen.  V.  23,31.  ix.  29.  'H'  "all  his  days  was,''^  which  is 
wrong  ;  but  vn*  is  found  in  many  MSS.  and  in  Sam.  So 
Num.  ix.  6      (Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  167.) 

Isa.  Ixv.  1.  "iW  "them  that  asked  ;"  but  ^JiSni^,  "  asked  for 
me"  in  2  MSS.  and  is  better.  OlJ^p3,  "  him  that  sought 
me  ;"  but  ':)wp,  "  them,"  in  above  100  MSS.  oldest  Edit, 
and  all  Versions.    Rorn.  x.  20. 

Lowth  in  loc.     Ken.  ib.  and  Diss.  Gen.  p.  87.  n. 

3  Isa.  i  3.  "  Israel."— Sx^iy^i,  "  but  Israel,"  in  70.  Syr.  Vulg. 
Aq.Theod.  Eng.  (Lowth  in  loc.)  '^V — '^V^  "  and  my  people," 
in  16  M.^S.  70.  Syr.  Vulg.  (Lowth,  ib.)  Isa.  xvii.  14.  xxvii.9. 
XXX.  14.xli.  5,  7.  xlii    1,  7.  xlvi.  1 1.  xlix.  9.  I.  5.  Iv.  13.  (lid.) 

*  Jer.  xxxi.  33.  MPJ,  "  I  have  put."  This  is  applied  by  the 
Jews  to  their  own  law,  in  opposition  to  Christianity ;  but  the 
connexion  shows  it  to  be  wrong,  ^nnji,  "  and  I  will  put," 
is  found  in  19  MSS.  Chald.  and  other  ancient  versions,  ex- 
cept 70,  in  which  it  is  ^/^«$  ^aarea.  This  text  is  quoted,  Heb. 
X.  16.  as  a  prediction,  where  it  is  Sti'm ;  but  Sofo-a  is  found  in 
one  MS.  Syr.  Arab.  Ethiop.  Copt. ;  and  the  connexion  shows 
it  to  be  right. 

Ken.  in  loc.  Diss.  gen.  §  66.  and  n.  p.  83.  n.     Mill  in 
loc. 
«  Isa.  iii.  13.  tz)j? — iDjr,  "his  people."  70.  the  sense  requires 
this  reading.    (Lowth  in  loc.) 


KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS.         233 

750.  The  improper  omission  of  \  which  has  been 
very  frequent,  perverts  the  syntax  or  the  sense,  by 
turning  plural  into  singular  nouns/  by  changing  the 
persons  of  verbs,^  by  altering  the  future  into  the  past/ 
by  suppressing  the  affixt  pronoun."* 

Num.  xii.  3.  "  Now  the  man  Moses  was  very  meeit."  ijy  ;  but 
this  has  no  connexion  with  the  context,  and  he  everywhere 
represents  himself  as  a  man  of  great  warmth.  16  MSS. 
read  r3;r,  "  responsor."  Now  the  man  Moses  gave  forth 
more  answers  (from  God,)  or,  was  highly  favoured  with  an- 
swers, &c.    Ken.  Remarks. 

^  Gen.  xli.  8.  idSh,  "his  dream ;^^  but  this  does  not  agree 
with  CDjII^,  "  them,"  in  this  verse,  and  he  had  dreamed 
twice,  V.  5.  The  Sam.  has  VD'?n,  "  dreams,''^  (Ken.  Diss. 
Gen.  §  167.) 

Isa.  lii.  5.  iV^D,  "he  that  rules  over  them,^^  iWn\  (plur.) 
"maA:e  them  to  hoivl  ;^^  this  is  wrong.  V^UD,  "they  who 
rule,^^  Ken.  above  120  MSS  )hhn\  "make  their  fcoas^  of  it," 
5  MSS.  Chald.     (Ken.  and  Lowth  in  loc.) 

Ch.  liii.  4.  irSn,  "our  infirmity;"  but  irSn,  "our  infirmities," 
in  7  MSS.  and  3  Edit.  (lid.) 

2  Job  xlii.  2.  nVT,  "  thou  knowest ;"  but  ^1;^%  "  I  know,'* 
Keri.  about  80  MSS.  all  Vers.  Eng-  and  is  right  (Ken.  in 
loc.)  Ezek.  xvi.  59.  n'ty;M,  "  thou  wilt  deal  with  thee," 
absurd.  ^n^K^T^  "  X  will,"  &c.  Keri.  25  MSS.  Vers.  Eng. 
lid.) 

3  Psal.  xxii.  29.  iSdx,  "have  eaten."--i'?35<%  "shall  eat,"  1 
Edit,  perhaps  right.  Eng.  (Ken,  Diss.  Gen.  cod.  255.) 

*  Isa.  iii- 14.  LJ'^D^\ — 'O^on,  "  my  vineyard."  70.  Chald.  Jerom. 
Ch.  xii.  2.  n-iDI— -nir:?,  "  my  song."  1  MS  70.  Vulg.  Syr. 
Eng.  (Lowth  in  loc.) 

751.  2.  Omissions  of  entire  words  are  very  fre- 
quent ;  and  always  introduce  obscurity,  absurdity,  or 
a  difference  in  sense. 

30 


234  KIN.DS  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

There  are  50  whole  words  omitted  in  Isaiali.  Lowth,  Prel. 
Diss.  p.  65  ) 

Gen.  XXV.  8.  jr^iyi,  "  and  full" — of  what  ?  O'D',  "  of  days," 
is  added  in  3  MSS.  Sam.  70.  Syr.  Vulg.  Arab.  This  was 
a  customary  phrase,  ch.  xxxv.  29.  1  Chron.  xxiii.  1.  xxix. 
28.  Job.  xlii.  17.  Eng.  "ot  years."  (Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  25, 
108,136,176,  179.) 

Josh.  viii.  27.  St^nty^ ;  but  Sx-^ty'  '22  in  94  MSS.  and  all  Vers. 
(Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  p.  87,  n.)  Ch.  xxii.  34.  "called  the  altar— 
for  it  shall  be  a  witness  ;''  this  is  defective  ;  but  ir,  "wit- 
ness," is  found  in  several  MSS.  Chald.  MSS.  Syr.  Arab  Vulg. 
Eng.  the  sense  requires  it  (Ken.  in  loc.  Diss.  1.  p.  444. 
Diss.  2.  p.  175,  178.  Diss.  Gen  §  25,  55,  108.) 

Judg.  XV.  6.  n'DX,  "  her  father ;"  but  n'3N  r\'2,  "  the  house  of 
her  father,"  in  20  MSS.  70.  Syr.  Arab.  (Ken.  in  loc.  et 
Diss.  Gen.  p.  87.  n.) 

1  Sam.  xvi.  23.  D'nbx  nil ;  but  n;?n  a'nSx  nn,  "  an  evil 
spirit  from  the  Lord,"  in  4  MSS.  Chald.  all  Vers,  the  con- 
nexion requires  this  addition.    Ken.  in  loc.  et  ib. 

2  i;am.  vi.  6.  "  Uzzah  put  forth — to  the  ark ;"  this  is  defec- 
tive :  but  ^T'P^i^,  "  his  hand,"  in  all  Vers,  and  1  Chron. 
xiii.  9. 

Ver.  7.  Vk^n  hi\  but  there  is  no  such  noun,  and  the  suffix  is 
wanting.  )T  r\h\if~^\i/i^  hi^  "because  he  put  forth  his  hand," 
iSyr.  Arab.  1  Chron.  xiii.  10.  two  words  omitted,  one  letter 
clianged,  two  tiansposed. 

Ch.  xiii.  57.  "  And— mourned."  Who  1—1)1  V^'^'),  "  and  David 
heard  it,  and  mourned."  in  1  MS.  all  Vers.  Eng.  (Ken.  Diss. 
Gen.  p.  80.  n.) 

1  Chron.  vi.  28.  (Heb.  v.  13.)  "the  first  born"  ':\i/) ;  this  is  not 
true,  but  Joel,  1  Sam.  viii  2.  ^xr  is  omitted.  "Joel,  and 
the  second  Abiah."     (Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  113  ) 

Psal.  ix.  18.  "  The  expectation  of  the  poor  shall— perish."  ah, 
"  not,"  in  1  MS.  Chald.  ail  Vers.  Eng.  evidently  right. 
Ken.  in  loc.  et  Diss.  Gen.  cod.  153. 

Job  xxviii.  17.  "  the  exchange  of  it— jewels."  i<h,  "  not,"  in  1 
MS.  Sym.  Eng.  riglit.  lid.  ib. 


KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS.  235 

Psal.  Ixv.  1.  "vow  paid," — in  Jerusalem,  is  added  in  Vulg 
Ethiop.  Arab.  70.  Comp.  Aid.  and  several  MSS.  right;  the 
structure  requires  it. 
Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  89, 

752.  3.  There  have  sometimes  happened  omis- 
sions of  several  words  together,  or  of  whole  clauses, 
which,  in  a  variety  of  ways,  mutilate  or  vitiate  the 
sense. 

Gen.  XXXV.  22. '"  Israel  heard  it— Now  the  sons,"  &c.  piska. 
But  the  70.  adds,  "  and  it  appeared  evil  in  his  eyes."  Num. 
xii.  16.  The  Sam  adds  the  speech  referred  to,  and  repeated 
Deut.  i.  20 — 23  ;  this  is  right  and  necessary. 
Ken.  in  loc.  et  Diss.  Gen.  §  24. 

1  Sam.  X.  21.  After  "Matri  was  taken,"  n:::Dn  nnSK'ro  IdVi 
on^aS,  "  And  when  he  had  caused  the  family  of  Matri  to 
come  near  man  by  man,"  is  added  in  1  MS.  and  70.  right ; 
the  sense  requires  it.     (lid.  ib.  cod.  451.) 

2  Kings  xxiii.  16.  "  the  man  of  God  proclaimed  [when  Jero- 
boam stood  by  the  altar  at  the  feast;  and  he  turned  and  lift- 
ed up  his  eyes  to  the  sepulchre  of  the  man  of  God]  who  pro- 
claimed these  words,"  &c.  70.  Syr.  MSS.  the  sense  requires 
it,  V.  17. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  89. 
Prov.  xi.  16.  "A  gracious  woman  retaineth  honour;  [but  she 
that  hateth  rig-hteousness  is  a  throne  of  dis2;race.     The  sloth- 
ful  come  to  want  wealth ;]    but  strong  men  retain  riches.'' 
70.  Syr.  Arab. 

Ken.  ib.  §  165.  et  Diss.  1.  p.  508. 
Luke  xi.  2.      Fsv/iC'^reo  TO  B-eXrifA.cc  os^  ag  sv  avpxvoj,  xxt    stti  mg  ysjj, 
is  wanting  in  some   MSS.  Vulg.  Armen.  Origen.  Augustin. 
Ver.  4.  flcAA*  fvTxi  rfA-oci  w^o  ra  Tr^v^pa,  is  wanting  in  some 
MsS.  Vulg.  Armen.  Copt.  August.  Origen. 

Mill,  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 


236  KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

753.  II.  Additions  and  interpolations  have  often 
been  made  in  transcribing  the  Scriptures,  and  per- 
plex the  sense,  which  will  be  cleared  by  removing 
them. 

754.  1.  The  interpolation,  or  addition,  of  letters, 
has  been  common  among  transcribers  ;  but  generally 
destroys  or  alters  the  sense. 

2  Chron.  iv.  19.  ri:nVkyn,  "the  tables  ;"  but  there  was  only 
one,  jnSi:  n,  see  I  Kings  vii.  48.  V*?;^  turned  into  aT\^^];,  by 
assimilation. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  167. 

1  Thess  ii.  7,  >j5t«)<,  "gentle,"  which  the  sense  shows  to  be  right; 
—but  vi,?noi,  "infants,"  in  10  MSS.  Vulg  Ethiop.  and  quota- 
tions. 

Mill.  Kust.  and  Griesb.  in  loc,  et  Prol   488. 

755.  In  Hebrew,  the  vowel  letters,  especially  1  and 
%  have  often  been  improperly  added  ;  and  the  lan- 
guage disfigured,  or  difficulty  occasioned  by  the  ad- 
dition. 

2  Sam.  xii.  1.  "the  one  rich,  and  the  other  K'XT  head ;^*  but  it 
is  W'^  "  poor,"  in  22  MSS.  v.  4.  "  took"  B'Xin  "  the  headPs 
lamb;"  but  ty'in  "the  poor  man's,"  in  15  MSS. 

Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  167. 
Isa.  i.  4.  CDTi-niyD,  "  corrupters ;"    but  liD\nniyD,  "  corrupted," 

in  5  MSS.     So  Prov.  xxv.  26.    This  last  is  preferable. 
niJ,  "  separated,"  from  niJ ;  but  niTJ,  in  32  MSS.  and  2  Edit, 
from  "in,  "  alienate,"  which  is  better. 
Ken,  and  Lowth  in  loc. 
Ver.  7.  The  last  CD'nT,  "  stranger,"  is  tautologous ;    perhaps 
□"^1,  "  inundation." 
Lowth  in  loc. 
Isa.  vi.  5.  ^n-mj,  "  T  am  undone;"— but  ^nDi3,  «  I  am  struck 
dumb,"  in  28  MSS.  3  Edit.  Vulg.  Syr.  Sym. 


KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS.  237 

Lowth  in  loc. 

Isa.  X.  13.  lo«D,  "  as  valiant ;" — but  T2D,  «  strongly  seated.'* 
Keri,  12.  MSS. 
Lowth  in  loc. 

756.  The  arbitrary  and  improper  insertion  ofl 
changes  the  personal  pronouns,  turns  singulars  into 
plurals,  and  gives  superfluous  conjunctions. 

Josh.  vi.  7.  nnx^i,  "dixerunt;"    but  the  n')minative  is  "  Josh- 
uah.'*     The  Keri  is  "IDKI,  and  this  is  found  in  34  M^S.  Ken. 
in  loc.  et  Diss.  1.  p.  438.    Isa.  i.  6.  Ixiii.  7. 
Lowth  in  loc. 
1  Kings  vii.  36.  n'n-iJDDl  S;m,  "  and  on  and  the  borders."  but  i 
I        is  wanting,  Keri  and  21  M;SS.     Ken.  Diss.  Gen,  §  167.  Isa. 
i.  23.  xix.  13. 

Lowth  in  loc. 

757.  The  interpolation  of  ^  has,  in  very  many  in- 
stances, turned  singular  nouns  into  plurals,  the  second 
persons  of  verbs  into  the  first,  the  past  into  the  fu- 
ture, and  gives  a  suffix  pronoun  where  there  should  be 
none  ;  and,  in  all  these  cases,  introduces  great  impro- 
priety or  perversion  of  the  sense. 

Isa.  xiv.  11.  yDJDi;— -but  •\DDr2),  "covering,"  in  28  MSS.  7 
Edit.  70  Vulg. 

Lowth  and  Ken.  in  loc. 

Ruth  iii.  3.  "anoint  thee,  and  I  will  put  on"  'nrasyi  (but  '  is 
wanting,  " f/iou  s/ifl/^,"  in  Keri.  and  239  MSS.  and  Edit.) 
"thy  raiment  upon  thee,  and  /w-iZZgetme  down," 'mn 
(but*  wanting,  ''thou  shalt  ^et  thee  down,"  in  Keri.  and 
111  MSS.  and  Edit.)  "to  the  floor,  but  make  not  thyself 


known. 


Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  1.  p.  447. 
Isa.    xxxvi.  5.  "niDX,  "  I   say,"  wrong ; — but  n'iDN,  "  thou 
sayest,"  in  16  MSS.  Syr.  2  Kings  xviii.  20.     The  sense  re- 
quires this. 


238  KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

Lowth  in  loc.  Ken.  ib.  and  Diss.  Gen.  p.  83.  n. 
Psal.  ex.  4,  -nnm  hv,  "after  my  order  Melchizedek  ;"  this  is 
not  sense  ;— but  man,  « the  order  of,"  &c.  in  2  MSS,  Vers. 
Heb.  vii.  17.  21. 
Ken.  in  loc. 

758.  2.  There  have  been  interpolations  of  words, 
from  many  causes,  and,  particularly,  from  taking  mar- 
ginal glosses  into  the  text ;  which  disturb  or  destroy 
the  sense. 

Isa.  ii.  20.  iS,  "  for  himself,"  is  wanting  in  1  MS.  and  70. ;   it 

is  superfluous. 

Lowth  in  loc. 
Isa.  X.  23.  "In  the  midst  of  all  (iD)  the  land,"  wanting  In  75 

MSS.  and  Edit.  Chald.  Rom.  ix.  28. 

Lowth  in  loc.     Ken.  ib.  and  Diss.  Gen.  p.  87.  n. 
Ezek.  V.  7.  "  Neither  (kS)  have  done,"  &c.  wanting  in  26  MSS. 

and  Edit. 

'   Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  §  104, 179. 
Isa.  liii.  11.  pnv,  "mj  righteous  servant,"  wanting  in  3  MSS. 

Lowth  in  loc. 
Mat.  XV.  8.   TO)  cTTofJLuri  uvrm  kxi,  wanting  in  some  ancient 

MSS.  Vulg.  Syr.  Armen.  Copt.  Pers.  Ethiop.  perhaps  it  has 

been  added  from  Isa.  xxix.  13. 

Erasm.  and  Griesb.  in  loc.    Mill.  ib.  and  Prol.  389. 

739.  3.  Several  words,  or  whole  clauses,  have 
been  interpolated,  to  the  great  disturbance  of  the 
sense. 

Gen.  xxxvi.  31 — 43.  is  found  in  all  copies,  yet  not  written  by 
Moses ;  it  has  been  added  from  1  Chron.  i.  43 — 54. 
Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  18,  3. 
Deut.  ii.  9—12.  not  by  Moses.     lid.  ib-  §  167. 
2  Kings  vii.  13.  niyx  '7«iiy*  ponn  to  ojn  nD  nxsyj,  "  are  left 


KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS.  239 

in  it,  behold  they  are  as  all  the  multitude  of  Israel,  which ;" 
this  clause  is  repeated  twice,  but  wanting  in  36  MSS.  70. 
Syr.  and  Chald.  MSS. 

Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  §  89,  179. 
Ch.  viii.  16.  "  In  the  fifth  year  of  Joram— and  of  Jehoshaphat 
king  of  Judah,^\7M^T^'  -jSd  DSK^nn  ;  but  this  is  not  true  ; 
the  Eng.  mistranslates; — but  the  clause  is  wanting  in  2 
MSS.  70.  Compl.  Aid  Vulg.  MSS  and  all  the  oldest  Edit. 
Syr.  MSS  oldest  Edit,  of  Eng.  it  has  been  taken  from  the 
line  below. 

Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  §  19,  109,  p.  49,  n. 
2  Chron.  xxxvi.  22,  23.  are  improper,  for  there  is  an  interval 
of  70  years;  the  book  breaks  off  abruptly,  yet  it  has  lono- 
been  the  last  in  the  Bible.  These  verses  have  been  added 
from  Ezra  i.  1,  2.  which  is  still  found  immediately  following 
this  book,  in  one  Heb.  MS. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  491.     Diss.  Gen.  cod.  431. 
Isa.  XXX.  26.  "  as  the  light  of  seven  days,"  is  wanting  in  most 
copies  of  70. 

Lowth  in  loc. 
Jer.  lii.  has  been  added  ;  for  ch.  li.  64.  ends  Jeremiah's  words. 
It  is  taken  from  2  Kings  xxiv.  1 8,  &c.  but  with  several 
errors  Ver.  28,  29,  30.  are  interpolated  ;  they  contradict 
2  Kings  xxiv.  16.  Ver.  34.  "  until  the  day  of  his  death,  all 
the  days  of  his  life,"  are  superfluous ;  and  they  are  wanting 
in  one  ancient  MS.  and  2  Kings  xxv.  30. 

Ken.  in  loc.  et  Diss.  1.  p.  481. 
Mat.  x.  8.  vey^pag  eysipers,  wanting  in   56  MSS.  Armen.  Pers. 
quotations;    probably  added,  for  the  apostles  raised  none 
during  Christ's  life. 

Mill.  Kust.  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 
Ch.  xxiii.  13.  omitted  in  Cam.  Arab.  MSS.  very  ancient  Lat. 
MSS.  Sax.  Orig.  Jeroin.  Euseb.   perhaps  added  from  Mark 
or  Luke  ;  it  is  transposed  with  v.  14.  in  near  30  MSS.  sev- 
eral Edit.  Vulg.  Copt.  Syr.  Arab. 

Mill,  et  Griesb.  in  loc. 


240  KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

Luke  xvii.  35.  Ava  sfovtui  ev  rca  etypai  &c.  is  added  in  6  M SS. 
several  Edit.  Vulg.  Syr.  Peis.  Goth.  Arab,  quotations. — 
probably  from  Mat.  xxiv.  40.  for  it  is  wanting  in  Alex,  and 
most  other  MSS.  and  in  Copt. 
Mill.  Grot,  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 
Acts  viii.  37.  is  wanting  in  Alex,  and  about  30  others,  in  Syr. 
Ethiop.  Copt,  it  has  been  a  marginal  illustration  from  Rom. 
x.  9. 

Mill.  Kust.  and  Griesb.  in  loc.  and  Prol.  371.  Grot,  in  loc. 

V.  39.  For  TTvevfAoc  Kv^ia,   there   is   ^vbv/^oc   uytov    evsTrea-tv    etq  rot 

evvovpcov  ayyeXoi  h  Kvpm,  in  Alex.  and  several  other  ancient 

MSS.  and  in  Jerome;   but  probably  added  from  ch.  x.  44. 

or  xi.  15. 

Mill,  et  Griesb.  in  loc. 

760.  III.  Other  false  readings  are  produced  by 
transposition ;  and  often  create  difficulties,  which  can 
be  removed  only  by  correcting  them. 

761.  1.  The  transposition  of  letters  in  a  word, 
often  changes  its  sense,  or  deprives  it  of  all  meaning, 
and,  in  proper  names,  occasions  an  appearance  of  con- 
tradiction. 

The  Masora  admits  the  transposition  of  letters  in  62  words, 

but  it  is  more  frequent. 
In  the  Bible,  HD^iy  occurs   16  times ;    and  hSdij?,  27  times, 

"  garment ;"   the  latter  is  the  right  reading.      Sam,  MSS. 

from  Sniy,  (Arab.)  "  vestivit." 
Isa.  i.  25.  n3D  ;  perhaps  it  should  be  132,  "  in  a  furnace."  Mic. 

iii.  3.  niyxD,  "  as  which.'' — nj^i^D,  "  as  morsels."  70.  Chald. 

Eng. 
Lowth. 
Jer.  xii.  4.  "  He  shall  not  see  ()3nnnN)  our  last  end,^^    70  has, 

'*  our  ways,^*  iJnin"»X  ;  this  is  preferable,    n  and  n  have  been 
transposed,  and  )  changed  into  \ 


KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS.  241 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  512. 
Chap,  xxviii.    13.   non    and  nibs's,  "jokes;"    the  former  is 
wrong,  but  right  in  20  MSS.     nitDlD  is  found  in  16  MSS.  in 
the  former  place,  and  in   15  in  the  latter.    riDD  is  found  in 

2  MSS. 

Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  §  167. 
Ch.  xxxii.   23.  "  Neither  walked,"  "jrinns,  a  barbarous  word  ; 
•jminD,  "in  thy  law,"  Keri. above  30  MSS.j 
lid. 
Zech.  xii.  10.  "they  have  pierced,"  npl,  right ;  but  npn,«they 
have  insulted,"  in  1  MS.  70.  in  most  copies. 
Ken.  in  loc.  Diss.  Gen.  §  70. 
Josh,  xxiv,  30.  "  Timnath-sera/t,"  TT^D.   right ; — but  Judg.  ii. 
9.  Din  " /leras ;"  but  mo  is  found  in  6  MSS.  Vulg.  Syr. 
Arab. 

Ken.  ib.  and  Diss.  Gen.  §  167. 
Jehoram's  only  son  is  called  IHTHN,  <*Ahaz-ihu"  18  times; 
right ;— but  THNin^  "  Ihu-ahaz"  thrice,  and  n^THN,  "  Ahaziah," 
5  times. 
1  Kings  X.  11,  12.  a^JD^N*— but  2  Chron.  ix.  10,  11.  a^au^x. 

762.  2.  There  are  transpositions  of  words,  which 
produce  confusion,  obscurity,  or  absurdity. 

Isa.  iv.  5.  pDD'^D,  "  every  station."  wrong,  for  Zion  was  tiie 
only  station ;  it  is  wanting  in  4  M'^S.  but  added  before 
nx-ipD  in  above  SO  MSS. — "all  her  assemblies,"  in  one 
ancient  MS.  and  70.  right ;  it  has  thus  changed  its  place. 
nUD'SD,  "  all  the  glory."  wrong.  1)2D  hD,  "  the  glory  over 
all."  Zech.  ii.  v. 
Ken.  et  Lowth  in  loc. 

763.  3.  There  are  likewise  transpositions  of  whole 
clauses,  sentences,  or  periods ;  which  occasion  difloL- 
culties  of  various  kinds. 

Exod.  XXX.  1 — 10.    This  passage  concerning  the  altar  of  in- 
31 


242  KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS. 

cense,  is  improperly  inserted  here  ;  it  is  wanting  in  the  Sam. 
it  has  been  taken  from  the  end  of  ch.  xxvi.  where  it  is  want- 
ing in  the  Heb,  but  retained  in  the  Sam.  and  is  properly  in- 
troduced there,  according  to  ch.  xxxi.  6 — 11.  xxxv.  12 — 16. 
xxxvii.  1.  xxxviii.  8  xxxix.  35—39.  xl.  S — 7.  v.  21—30. 
Ken.  in  loc  and  Diss.  Gen.  §  22,  24. 
Job.  xl.  1 — 14.  These  verses  improperly  interrupt  the  des- 
cription ;  V.  1 5.  connects  properly  with  ch.  xxxix.  30.  They 
have  originally  followed  ch.  xlii.  6.  where  they  are  proper, 
forming  a  striking  conclusion  of  the  poem,  and  connected 
with  V.  7.  "after  the  Lord  had  spoken  these  words  unto 
Job."  &c.  but,  at  present.  Job  concludes  the  poem,  which 
occasions  great  confusion. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  23,   16"^.  and  Remarks  on  select  pas- 
sages.    Heath  in  loc. 
Isa.  vii.  8,  9-  should  stand  thus,  "head  of  Syria — of  Damascus 
— of  Ephraim — of  Samaria — and  within  threescore  and   five 
years,"  &c. 
Lowth  in  loc. 
Isa.  xxxviii.  21,  22.  These  two  verses  are  no  part  of  the  song, 
and  are  improper  here;  v.  22. should  follow  v.  6.  and  v.  21. 
after  v.  8.     So  they  stand  2  Kings  xx  7,  8. 
Lowth  in  loc.     Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  23. 

Isa.  xli.  6,  7.  These  two  verses  are  unconnected  ;  they  have 
probably  followed  ch.  xl.  20.  where  they  are  proper,  and 
prevent  abruptness. 

Houbig.  in  loc.     Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  23. 

764.  IV.  Finally,  there  are  many  false  readings 
productive  of  difliculty  or  error,  which  consist  in 
change  or  alteration. 

765.  1.  Not  only  similar  letters,  but  others  also, 
have  heen  confounded  and  interchanged  by  tran- 
scribers ;  and  important  alterations  in  the  sense  have 
thence  arisen. 


KINDS  OF  FALSE  READINGS.  243 

The  name  of  Nebuchadnezzar  is  written  in  7  different  ways. 
2  Sam.  xviii.  12.  'D  '\-^^\i/,  "  beware  who  of  Absalom  ;"  but '% 
"preserve  to  me,"  in  2  MSS.  Chald.  70.  Syr. 
Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  §  116. 
Isa.  i.  29.  y^y,  "  they ;"   but  lii'i^n.  "  ye  shall  be  ashamed," 
in  2  MSS.  one  Edit.  Chald.  Vulg.    The  connexion  requires 
this. 

Lowth  and  Ken.  in  loc. 
Ch.  vi.  9.  IX-?,  but  nxi  in  13  MSS.;  regular. 

lid. 
Ch.  viii.  9.  1>*'^,  "  associate,'*  but  V"',  "  know,"  in  70.  which  is 
better;  being  synonymous  with  "give  ear,"  in  the  next  line. 
V.  1 1.  npTn3,  "  with  a  strong  hand  ;"  but  npTHD,  "  as  taking 
me  by  the  hand,"  in  11  MSS,  Syr.  Vulg.  Sym. 
lid. 
Ch.  xiii.  22.  vnunSx^.    but  rm3:D-iN3,  in  1  MS. ;  right. 
Ch.  xxii.  19.  lD-^n%  "  he  shall  pull  thee,"  but  •\OlTM<y  "  /  will," 
in  Syr.  Vulg. ;  the  connexion  requires   this, 
lid. 

766.     2.  Transcribers  have  often  made  a  false  read- 
ingj  by  putting  one  word  instead  of  another. 

Judg.  1.  22.  n'3, "  the  ho2ise  of  Joseph,"  but  ^J3,  "  the  sons.^*  in 
8  MSS.  70.  Arab. 
Ken.  in  loc. 
2  Chron.  xxi.  2.  bxniy^  but  TMMI^  in  above  20  MSS.  70.  Vulg. 
The  sense  requires  this. 
Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  p.  83.  n. 
Psal.  Ixii.  12.  'ni»DK»,  but  iJ^^iS^,  «  we  have  heard,"  in  10  MSS. 
Arab. ;  this  is  preferable. 

Id.  ib.  and  Diss.  Gen.  cod.  255. 
Prov.  XV,  20.  "  A  foolish  man  aix,  but  |2  sow,"  in  6  MSS.  70. 
Syr.  Chald.;  this  makes  a  proper  antithesis  to  "  wise  son.^* 
Id.  ib.  Diss.  2.  p.  188.  Diss.  Gen.  §  25.  and  cod.  92. 
Isa.  ix.  11.  n:f,  "  the  enemies,"  but  ''^u,  "the  ^riwces of  Rezin," 
in  21  MSS. 


244         RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS. 

Lovvth  and  Ken.  in  loc. 
Ch.  XXXV.  2.  "  It  shall   rejoice  with  jjni  nS'J  Jo//  and  singing.''^ 
rhl,  in  4  MSS.  and   pT,  "  Jordan,-'  in  "O.  Syr.  MSS   "  the 
well-watered  plain  of  Jordan  shall  rejoice,"  on  account  of 
Christ's  baptism  there;  it  is  thus  a  prediction  of  it.     It  has 
perhaps  been  designedly  altered.     nS.  *'to  it,"  but  "l"?,  "to 
thee,"  in  9  MSS. 
Ken.  Lowth  and  Houbig.  in  loc.      Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  81, 
176.     Lowth,  Sacr.  Poes.  prael.   20.  n. 

767.  3.  There  have  sometimes  been  substitutions 
of  whole  clauses  or  sentences;  in  place  of  others,  to- 
tally different. 

Prov.  X.  10. — "but  a  prating  fool  shall  fall;"  there  is  here, 
neither  connexion  nor  antithesis  ;  it  has  been  taken  from  v. 
8.  where  it  is  proper. — "  but  he  that  freely  reproveth,  work- 
eth  safety,"  in  Syr.  Arab.  70.;  it  thus  makes  a  proper  anti- 
thesis ;  false  and  true  friendship. 
Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  506.  Diss.  Gen.  §  165. 


SECT.  IT. 


Rules  of  judging  concerning  various  Readings. 

768.  From  the  several  particular  observations  con- 
cerning the  various  readings  of  Scripture,  which  have 
been  hitherto  made,  may  be  deduced  such  general 
principles  as  will  serve  for  determining  which  are  spu- 
rious, and  which  genuine. 

769.  The  evidences  by  which  various  readings  may 
be  examined,  are  of  two  kinds, — external, — and   in- 


RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.         245 

ternal ;  the  former,  arising  from  the  authority  of  MSS. 
versions,  and  quotations  ;  the  latter,  from  the  nature 
of  the  languages,  the  sense  and  connexion,  and  the 
known  occasions  of  false  readings  ;  parallel  places  par- 
take of  the  nature  of  both. 

Michael.  Int.  Led,  §  16.     Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  6.  sect.  13. 

770.  When  the  evidences  of  both  kinds  concur,  in 
favour  of  a  reading,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  the 
genuine  reading ;  and,  therefore,  we  have  full  assur- 
ance of  the  genuineness  of  the  great  bulk  of  the  Scrip- 
tures as  contained  in  all  the  common  editions. 

771.  When  the  evidence  for  and  against  a  reading 
is  divided,  the  determination  must  be  made  according 
to  the  circumstances  of  each  particular  case. 

772.  If  the  external  evidence  stands  on  the  one  side, 
and  the  internal  on  the  other,  the  former  ought,  in 
general,  to  determine  the  question,  for  it  is  the  most 
direct. 

773.  But,  the  internal  evidence  may,  notwithstand- 
ing, be  so  strong,  as  to  overbalance  a  great  degree  of 
external  evidence  ;  particularly,  w^here  the  reading 
supported  by  the  latter  is  palpably  false,  or,  were  the 
introduction  and  prevalence  of  it  can  be  easily  account- 
ed for,  without  supposing  it  genuine,  as  in  copies  plain- 
ly framed  in  conformity  to  the  Masora. 

774.  Often,  both  the  external  and  the  internal  evi- 
dence, is  partly  for  one  reading,  and  partly  for  ano- 
ther ;  and  they  are  divided  with  so  great  varieties  of 


246    RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS. 

circumstances,  that  no  rules  of  decidingj  strictly  uni- 
versal, can  be  laid  down. 

775.  But,  if  we  distinguish  various  readings  into 
four  classes — certainly  genuine — probable — dubious — 
and  false  ;  it  may  be  possible  to  determine,  with  sufii- 
cient  precision,  the  circumstances  which  entitle  a  read- 
ing to  be  placed  in  one  or  another  of  these  classes. 

776.  1.  There  are  readings  certainly  genuine  ;  and 
there  are  even  different  degrees  of  evidence,  which 
may  ascertain  them  to  be  such  ;  and  all  such  ought  to 
be  adopted  without  hesitation. 

777.  Readings  are  certainly  right,  and  that  in  the 
very  highest  sense  at  all  consistent  with  the  existence 
of  any  various  reading,  which  are  supported  by  several 
of  the  most  ancient,  or  the  majority  of  MSS.  ;  by  all 
or  most  of  the  ancient  versions ;  by  quotations  ;  by 
parallel  places,  if  there  be  any,  and  by  the  sense  ; 
though  these  readings  be  not  found  in  the  common 
editions,  nor,  perhaps,  in  any  printed  edition. 

Psal.  xv*K  10.   "  Neither  wilt  thou  suffer   (yTOn)  thy  saints  to 

see  corruption  ;"  it  is  so  rendered  every  where,  as  Psal.  lii. 

9.  Ixxix.  2.  cxxxii.  9.  cxlv.  10,  but  not  true.     But  it  is  in^DH 

"  thy  holy  one,^^  in  Keri,  all  ancient  MSS.  and  the  majority 

Mf'  1^'^ht.  -if,  several  editions  of  the  Talmud,  Chald.  and  all 

ancient  versions;  it  is  so  quoted  Acts  ii.  25 — 31.  xiii.  35 — 

37,  and  reasoned  from.      The  alteration  might  have  been 

accidental,  but,  probably,  has  been  designedly  retained. 

Ken.  Diss.  I.  p.  218,  496.     Diss.  2.  p.  107,  346,  469,  561. 

Diss.  Gen.  §  17,  35,  64,  85,  86,   150,  179,  p.  83.  n.  lid. 

and  Houb.  in  loc. 

1  Kings  i.  18.    «  And  now  (nnj^i)  my  lord,  knowest  not ;"  but 


RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.    24*7 

nnxi  "'  and  thou,^^  in  200  MSS.  and  Edit.  Chald.all  versions. 
V.  ^.iO.  nriKl  "  And   thoUy  the  eyes  of  Israel  are  upon  thee ;" 
but  nnr%  "and  now*"^  in  near  100  MSS.  Syr.  Arab.  Vulg. 
Chald.    The  sense  requires  both  these  alterations. 
Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  55,  et  in  loc. 

1  Chron.  iv.  3.  "These  are  (^3«)  the  father  of  Etam,  Jezreel," 
&c. ;  this  is  absurd ;  but  '33  "  the  sons,^^  in  8  MSS.  on  the 
margin  of  4  more,  and^all  versions.     '35<  ':3  in  6  MSS. 
Ken.  in  loc. 
Isa.  xxvii.  2.    "  A  vineyard  (nDTi)  of  red  wine  ;"  but  ir^n  « the 
beloved  vineyard,"  in  45  MSS.  and  Edit.  70.  Chald. 
Ken.  and  Lovvth  in  loc. 

Isa  Iviii.  5.  "  Wherefore  have  we  afflicted  our  souP^  {)W3}) 
but  )y\i/2i  "our  soM^s,"  in  6  ancient  MSS.  21  more,  1  ancient 
Edit.  Chald.  70  Vulg.     v.  8  nnD  ;  but  i)3D)  "  and  the  glory," 
in  5  ancient  MSS.  11  more.  70.  Syr.  Vulg. 
Ken.  and  Lowth  in  loc. 

Isa.  Ix.  21.     "  The  branch  {)V^d)  of  his  planting  ;"    but  yi^ri 
"of  my  planting,"  in  Keri,  7  ancient  MSS.  37  more,  6  Edit. 
Chald.  Syr.  Vulg.  Eng. 
lid.  ib. 

Isa.  Ixiii.  1 5.    "  Where  is  thy  powers'^  (V^'^n:  plur.)  but  "jn-^n J 
sing,  in  7  ancient  MSS.  25  more,  7  Edit, 
lid.  ib. 
Ezek.  xxxvi.  23.  "  I  shall  be  sanctified  in  you  before  your  eyes" 
(CDD'J^S  ;)    but  an*yr^  "before  f/ieir  eyes"  in  191  MSS. 
and  Edit.  Chald.  all  versions,  Eng. 

Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  §  48,  55,  108. 

Mat.  i.  11.  U-rixti  Se  ErENNHSE  TON  lAKEIM  (IQAKEIM) 
lAKElM  AE.  Thus  it  is  in  Edit.  H.  Steph.  and  Beza  and  in 
several  MSS.;  but  wanting  in  most  MbS.  and  Edit,  and  in 
all  versions ;  it  is  an  interpolation. 

Mill.  Kust.  and  Griesb.  in  loc.     Mill.  Prol.  702,  1258. 

Lukev.  7.  avTi  nAPA  Tl  fiv0(^e(rS»i,  "SO  that  they  sunk  a  little,''^ 


248    RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS* 

Edit.  Beza.  2  MSS.  Vulg.  Copt.  Pers.  Arab. ;  but  wanting 
in  all  others ;  it  is  a  gloss. 
Mill  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 

Mat.  XXV.  29.  (Atco  ^e  rov  f^t)  sx^^'^oi;,  y.xt  'O  EXEI  ccp6i}T£ra,t, 
"even  that  which /ig /laf/i."  So  it  is  in  all  ancient,  and  in 
the  majority  of  MSS.  and  in  all  versions  but  one.  o  ^omt 
t^stv,  "which  he  seemeth  to  have,"  is  found  in  several  MSS. 
and  in  Vulg  but  it  is  wrong;  it  has  been  corrected  from 
Luke  viii.  18. 

Mill.  Kust.  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 

Rom.  vii.  6.  Kccnj^y^Stif^ev  ecTTo  rov  vojuov  TOY  ©ANATOT,  in  2 
MSS.  Vulg.  and  a  few  quotations.-~«6x«^^vovro5,  "that  being 
dead,"  in  2  MSS.  Edit  Beza.  Eng. — xTroeuvovre^,  ^*  we  being 
dead,"  in  Alex  and  most  MSS.  and  Edit,  Syr.  Arab. 
Ethiop.  and  several  quotations.  This  last  reading  is  right ; 
so.  V.  4. 

lid,  ib.     Macknight  in  loc. 
Heb.  xii.  20.  jj  /3eA/^<  KctTeiro^ev6ij<rercii,  "  or  thrust  through  with 
a  dart,"  wanting  in  Alex,  and  above  20.  MsS    Vulg.  feyr. 
Arab.  Copt.  Ethiop.  Compl.  edit,  and  several  quotations ;  it 
has  been  added  from  Exod.  xix.  13.  in  70. 
lid.  lb.  and  Mill.  Prol.  991. 

778.  Readings  are  certainly  right,  which  are  sup- 
ported by  a  few  ancient  MSS.  in  conjunction  with  the 
ancient  versions,  quotations,  parallel  places,  and  the 
sense  ;  though  they  be  not  found  in  most  MSS.  nor  in 
the  printed  editions  ;  especially,  when  the  rejection  of 
them  in  these  latter  can  be  easily  accounted  for. 

2  Chron.  xi.  18.  *'  Rehoboam  took  (p)  the  son  of  Jerimoth  to 
wife;"  but  na  "the  daughter,"  in  about  13  MSS.  Keri.  all 
versions,  Eng. 
Ken.  in  loc. 

Psal.  xxii.  16.  nxD  "  like  a  lion  my  hands  and  my  feet ;"  but 
nxj  in  8  MSS.  >")D  in  2  MSS.  and  margin  of  3 ;  "  they 


JRULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.         249 

pierced,"  70.  Syr.  Vulg.  Aq.  Eng.  The  sense  requires  this, 
and  it  is  a  remarkable  prediction  ;  it  has  been  altered,  per- 
haps, by  accident,  but  retained  by  design. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  S20,  499.    Diss.  Gen.  §iii  c  39.    Id.  and 
Houbig.  in  loc.     Lowth,  Sacr.  Poes.  Prasl.  28. 
Psal  xxviii.  8.  "  The  Lord  is  (nS)  their  strength  ;"    but  there 
is  no  antecedent.     (id;^S)  "  of  his  people,"  in  6  MSS.  and  all 
versions. 

Ken  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  c.  39. 
Isa.  Ivi.  12.  nnpx  "/will  fetch  wine,  and  we  will  fill,"  &c. 
nnpJ  "  we  will,"  &c.  in  1  ancient  MS.  Chald.  Syr.  Vulg. 
The  sense  requires  this. 
Lowth  in  loc. 
Ezek.  xi.  7.  N']fin  "  he  hath  brought  thee  forth ;"   this  gives  na 
sense — J<*:fux  «  /  will  bring,"  &c.  in  37  MSS.  all  versions, 
Eng. 

Ken.  in  loc.  Diss.  Gen,  §  48.  p.  83,  n. 
Mat.  ii.   18.  S-py,voi  kxi,  wanting  in  4  MSS.  Syr.  Copt.  Arab. 
Ethiop.  Pers.  Vulg.  Justin  Mart.  Jerom.  Jer.  xxxi.  13.  it  has 
been  inserted  in  most  MSS.  from  70. 

Mill,  and  Griesb.  in  loc.  Mill.  Prol.  384. 
Eph.  V.  9  O  yap  KXpTog  Tov  Trvevt^curoi,  "the  fruit  of  the  Spirif* 
in  most  MSS.  and  Edit. ;  but  ^&»ro5,  «  of  the  light,"  in  Alex, 
and  9  more,  Vulg.  Syr.  Copt.  Ethiop.  and  several  quotations. 
The  connexion  shows  this  last  reading  to  be  right ;  it  has 
been  altered,  because  uncommon,  from  Gal.  v.  22. 
Mill.  Kust.  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 

779.  Readings  in  the  Pentateuch,  supported  by  the 
Samaritan  copy,  a  few  Hebrew  MSS.  the  ancient  ver- 
sions, parallel  places,  and  the  sense,  are  certainly  right, 
though  they  be  not  found  in  the  generality  of  Hebrew 
MSS.  nor  in  editions. 

Gen.  xlvii.  3.    "Thy  servants  are  (nj;"i)  a  shepherd;"  but  y^ 
"  shepherds,"  in  about  30  MSS.  and  Sam. 
32 


250     RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS. 

Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen,  §  54. 
Gen.  1.  25  "  Ye  shall  carry  up  my  bones  (HTD)  from  hence ;" 
but  LJDnx  HTD  «  from  hence  with  ijoUy^^  in  11  MSS.  Sam.  all 
Vers.  Exod.  xiii.  19. 

Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  §  48. 
Lev.  ix.  21.     "As  Moses  commanded" — H'k^'D  nj<  nin%  "as 
Jehovah  commanded  Moses,"  in  28  MSS.  Sam.  70  Arab. 

780.  Readings  in  the  Pentateuch,  supported  by  the 
Samaritan,  ancient  versions,  parallel  places,  and  the 
sense,  are  certainly  right,  though  they  be  not  found  in 
any  Hebrew  MSS.  now  extant. 

Gen.  ii.  24.  "W^^  "W^h  vni  "  And  they  shall  be  one  flesh'* — ^but 
tDHOa^D  rrm,  "  And  they  twOy^''  in  Sam.  text  and  Vers.  70. 
Ital.  Syr.  Arab.  Vulg  So  Mattli.  xix.  5.  Mark  x.  8.  1  Cor. 
vi.  16  Eph.  V.  31.  Philo.  Tertul.  Epiph.  Jerom.  Aug. 

Ken.  in  loc.     Diss.  Gen.  §  17,  64,  77 y  79,  85,  86 
Exod.  vi.  20.     "  Mie  bare  him  Aaron  and  Moses," — "And 
Miriam  their  sister,"  is  added  in  fcam.  text  and  Vers.  70. 
Syr. 

Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss  Gen.  §  177. 
Exod.  xii.  40.  "The  sojourning  of  the  children  of  Israel,  which 
they  dwelt  in  Egypt,  was  430  years,"  But  this  is  not  true; 
it  was  only  215  ;  it  contradicts  Gal.  iii.  17.  which  says,  that 
it  was  only  430  from  the  calling  of  Abraham,  of  which  215 
elapsed  before  the  going  into  Egypt,  Gen.  xii.  4  xvii.  1,  21. 
XXV.  26.  xl.  9 — "Of  the  children  of  Israel  and  of  their  fa- 
thers  (onnxi  Sam.  Alex,  and  Aid.  70.)  which  they  sojourned 
in  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  in  the  land  (|J^33  p^<3i,  Sam.  70.) 
of  Egypt,"  &c. 

Capel.  Crit.  Sacr.  p.   314.     Houbig.  Prol.  &  in  loc.  Ken. 
in  loc.  Diss.  1.  p.  396.    Diss.  Gen  §  136. 

781.  Ancient  MSS.  supported  by  some  of  the  an- 
cient versions,  and  the  sense,  render  a  reading  certain- 
ly right,  though  it  be  not  found  in  the  more  modern. 


RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.    251 

Isa.  Iviii.  10.  " Draw  out  thy  soul  (pi3J)  to  the  hungry;"    this 
is  obscure  and  singular ;  but  ^DnS  "  thy  bread,''^  m  3  ancient 
MS8.  5  more.  ftjr. ;  the  70.  has  both,  tt^rov  £»  4'^xfi- 
Lowth  and  Ken.  in  loc. 

782.  Ancient  MSS.  supported  by  parallel  places^ 
and  the  sense,  may  show  a  reading  to  be  certainly 
right. 

Isa.  Ixi.  4.     "  They  shall  build."     Who  ?    p*:  "  who  spring 
from  thee,"  in   2  ancient   MSS.    2  more.    ch.  Iviii.    12, 
Kimchi. 
Ken.  and  Lowth  in  loc. 

783.  The  concurrence  of  the  most  ancient,  or  of 
a  great  number  of  MSS.  along  with  countenance 
from  the  sense,  is  sufficient  to  shev/  a  reading  to  be 
certainly  right. 

Isa.  Ivii.  IS.  "Let  thy  companies  deliver  fftee,"  "jS^r  (sing.) 
but  "[^T  (plur.)  in  10  ancient  MSS.  29  more.  2  oldest 
Edit. 

Ken.  and  Lowth  in  loc. 

784.  The  concurrence  of  the  ancient  versions  is 
sufficient  to  establish  a  reading  as  certainly  right,  when 
the  sense,  or  a  parallel  place,  shows  both  the  propri- 
ety of  that  reading,  and  the  corruption  of  what  is  found 
in  the  copies  of  the  original. 

Prov.  xviii.  22.  "  He  that  findeth  a  wife,  findeth  a  good  thing." 
This  is  not  true ;  it  contradicts  other  maxims ;  but  T\2)n 
"  a  good  wife,"  in  70.  Syr.  Arab.  Vulg.  and  several  MSS.  of 
Chald. 

Ken.  Diss.  2  p.  189. 

Isa.  xli.  3.  "He  passed  (aibi:')  peace ;-^  3  is  omitted,  "m 
peace  ;"  so  70.  Vulg.  Eng.  v.  4.     "  Who  hath  wrought  and 


252    RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS. 

done,"  this  is  defective. — nSx  "these  things,"  1  ancient  MS. 
70.  Vulg.  Chald.  Eng.  has  "it." 
Ken.  and  Lowth  in  loc. 
Isa.  Iv.  9.    "  For  the  heavens  are  higher  than  the  earth,  so," 
&c. — D  "  as"  is  omitted ;    but  found  in  all  ancient  Vers. 
Eng.     Psal.  ciii.  11.;  the  sense  requires  it. 
Houbig.  Ken.  Lowth  in  loc. 
Isa.  Ivi.  5.  "  Unto  them  will  I  give — I  will  give  (iS)  /iim," 
*        but  IdS  "  i/ie?ii,"  in  70.  Syr.  Vulg.  Chald.  Eng.     The  sense 
requires  it. 
Lowth  in  loc. 
Isa.  lix.  20.  "  Unto  them  that  turn  {'2^h))  from  transgression  in 
Jacob  (3pi'*3)"  Eng.  but  D'tyni  "  and  shall  turn  away  trans- 
gression )2py'D)from  Jacob,"  in  70.  Syr.  Chald.  Rom.  xi.  26. 
Lowth  in  loc. 

785.  In  a  text  evidently  corrupted,  a  parallel  place 
may  suggest  a  reading  certainly  genuine. 

Judg.  vii.  18.  "  Say,  of  the  Lord  and  of  Gideon;"  this  is  de- 
fective. "  The  swovdy^^  3nn  supplied  from  the  execution,  v. 
20.  Eng. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §108,  167. 

2  Kings  XXV.  3.  "  On  the  ninth  day  of  the month ;"  this 

is  defective. — V2"»n  "  the  fourth,"  Jer.  lii.  6, 
Ken.  ib.  §  108,  113. 

1  Chron.  i.  17.  "The  sons  of  Shem  were  Aram and  Uz," 

&c.  "  But  the  sons  of  Aram,"  Gen.  x.  23.      CD^x  'J::)  is 
omitted,  and  1  prefixed  to  p;^. 

Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  c.  175. 

Isa  xvi  7-— 10.  "For  'l^'Brx  the  foundations^^  [w:^  "men,''' 
Jer.  xlviii  31.)  "  of  Kirhareseth"  ("  Kirharesh,"  v.  11.  and 
Jer.  ib.  36.)  ** shall  ye  mourn"  a'KDJ  "jK  ('=  surely  they 
are  stricken,"  Eng.)  but  70.  joins  these  words  with  the  next 
verse,  jnK'n  niDna^  'D  "  for  the  fields  of  Heshbon  languish ;" 
they  render  it,  "  and  the  fields  of  Heshbon  shall  not  be  put 


RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.  25S 

to  shame,-*  which  is  wrong ;  but  2  M8S.  and  Arab  have 
read  jna-'n  riiDii^'  idSdj  >x,  probably  right.  V.  9.  '*  For  the 
shouting  iTn  (*  the  spoiler  or  destroyer,'  ma?,  Jer.  ib.  32. 
Chald.)  for  thy  harvest  p'l^p  (-jn^v::  *  upon  thy  vintage,'  Jer. 
ib.  Chald.  70.  Syr.)  is  fallen."  V.  10.  "The  treaders  *]-nn 
(right,  and  corrects  nTH  in  v.  9.  Jer.  ib.  33.)  shall  tread  out 
no  wine ;  I  have  made  the  shouting  to  cease,^^  M3J!^n  ("  the 
shouting  is  made  to  cease,''  na^'n,  Jer.  ib.  33.  TO.) 
Lowth  in  loc 

Isa.  XXX   17.    "At  the  rebuke  of  five  shall • you 

flee  ;*'  this  is  defective — r\22'^  "ten  thousand  of  you,"  Lev. 
xxvi.  8.     Deut.  xsxii.  30. 
Lowth  in  loc. 

Isa,  xxxvi.  7  "  If  thou  say,"  sing.—but  "  ye/^  plur.  2  Kings 
xviii.  22.  Chald    70.  2  ancient  MSS.     The  connexion  re- 
quires this  ;    for  v.  21.  "  they  held  their  peace." — Oj^n  "  the 
people,"  2  Kings  ib  36.  I  x\is. 
Ken.  and  Lowth  in  loc. 

Isa.  xxxvii  9.  "When  he  heard  it,*^  y^iif'),  tsLuiologous ;  it  is 
wanting  in  1  ancient  MS. — 212>")  "he  returned,"  2  Kings 
xix.  9.  70.  i.  e.  "he  sent  again."     lid. 

V.  14.  "Read  i^— spread  it ;'^  it  should  be,  ''them/'  □  has 
been  put  for  in,  2  Kings  ib.  14.  v.  18.  "  have  laid  waste  all 
Me  Zfljzis  (mv-^xn)  and  their  land."  tZi'U  "the  nations," 
2  Kings  ib.  17.  and  10  MSS.— v.  20.  J<:  "we  beseech  thee," 
is  wanting;  to  be  supplied  from  2  Kings  ib.  19.  18  M->S. — 

"thou,  Jehovah,  art  the  only "  this  is  defective. — 

a-nSx  "God,"  ib.— V.  21.  "that  which  thou  hast  prayed 

,"   defective.— *n;?Dt:;   "I   have   heard."      Ib.  20. 

Syr.  70. 

786.  Readings  certainly  genuine,  ought  to  be  re- 
stored to  the  text  of  the  printed  editions,  though 
hitherto  admitted  into  none  of  them,  that  they  may 
henceforth  be  rendered  as  correct  as  possible ;  they 
ought,  likewise,  to  be  adopted  in  all  versions  of  Scrip- 


254         RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS. 

ture  ;  and^  till  this  be  done^  they  ought  to  be  followed 
in  explaining  it. 

787.  2.  There  are  various  readings^  probably 
genuine  ;  when  the  evidence  preponderates,  but  is  not 
absolute  decisive^  in  their  favour ;  of  which  kind,  as 
criticism  is  not  always  susceptible  of  certainty,  are  far 
the  greatest  part  of  various  readings  ;  and  the  degrees 
of  probability  being  infinite,  according  to  the  number- 
less minute  alterations  of  circumstances,  down  from 
certainty  to  perfect  doubtfulness,  it  is  impossible  to 
enumerate  fully  all  the  cases  which  fall  under  this 
head  ;  but  the  most  general  cases  may  be  distinguished. 

788.  Of  two  readings,  neither  of  which  is  unsuit- 
able to  the  sense,  either  of  which  may  have  naturally 
arisen  from  the  other,  and  both  which  are  supported 
by  MSS.,  versions  and  quotations ;  the  one  will  be 
more  probable  than  the  other,  in  proportion  to  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  evidence  which  supports  it ;  and 
that  preponderance  admits  a  great  variety  of  degrees. 

Gen.  X.  4.    "  Dodanim,"  Heb.  most  MbS.   Chald.  Vulg.  "  Ro- 
danim,"  in  a  few  M.*^S.  70.     1  Chron.  i.  7.  Masor.  and  most 
MSS.  ;  the  last  is  rather  probable. 
Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss*  Gen.  §  90. 

Isa.  Ix.  5.  "  Then  shalt  thou  see  (*U'in)  and  flow  together" — 
\s"i'n  "  shalt  thou/eflr,"  in  10  ancient  MSS.  30  others  ;  this 
last  is  most  agreeable  to  the  structure,  for  it  makes  the  clause 
parallel  to  the  next  line. 

V.  6.  «  The  praises  (mhrin)  of  Jehovah'- — nSnn  "  praise,"  in 
S3  MSS.  3  Edit,  ancient  Vers. 

V.  9. "  The  ships  of  Tarshish  (HJtyK'iU)  the  first." 

D  is  prefixed,  *'  as  at  the  first,"  in  25  MSS.  and  Syr. 
Ken.  and  Lowth  in  loc. 


RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.         2  5 

Math.  V,  27.  rots  «? %«/«/$,  wanting  in  51   MSS.  Compl.  Syr. 

Goth.  Copt.  Ethiop.  Arab,  it  has  been  taken  from  v.  21. 
Mill.  Kust.  and  Griesb.in  loc. 
Mat.  vi.  4.  f  V  Tft>  (pxvspo),  wanting  in  6  MSS.  Vulg.  Copt,  and 

some  quotations;  but  found  in  most  MSS.  Syr.  Arab.  Pers. 

and  more  quotations  ;  the  sense  shews  it  to  be  rio-ht. 

o 

Mill,  and  Griesb.  in  loc.     Whitby  Exam.  1.  2.  c  2.  s.  1. 

Luke  ii.  22.  "  The  days  of  their  {xvrm)  purification"— -«yTjj?  in 
2  MS."?.  Vulg.  Arab.  Eng.—uvrov  in  7  MsS.  and  Aug. ;  but 
both  are  wrong,  for  uvrav  is  best  supported,  Alex,  and  11 
other  MSS.  Syr.  Pers  Ethiop.  Goth.  Origen.;  it  has  been 
altered,  to  avoid  imputing  impurity  to  Jesus. 

Griesb.  in  loc.     Mill.  ib.  and  Prol.  176,  759,  1438. 

John  ii.  17.  x.ccre<pxys,  Com.  Edit. — KUTx<pxy£rx{,  in  Alex,  and 
47  other  MftS.  Origen.  Compl.  2  R.  Steph. 
Mill,  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 

Acts  iii.  20-  •*  He  shall  send  Jesus  Christ  (ra»  Tr^oKeKupvyi^svet) 
who  was  before  preached  unto  you,"  in  many  MSS.  and 
Vulg — but  TTpoKexstpio-f^evov  "  before  appointed,''^  in  Alex.  32 
more,  some  them  ancient.  Syr.  Arab,  ancient  quotations. 
2  Edit.  R.  Steph.  the  last  is  most  probable,  and  is  confirmed 
by  7r/)ojce;^;p/o-^£V5y  being  in  the  Ethiop.  which  might  be  easily 
corrupted  from  it. 

Acts  XX.  28.  "To  feed  the  church" — rov  xp'<^fov,  Syr.  quota- 
tions; but  it  is  wrong.— xy/Jioy  kui  S-eov,  in  21  MSS.  quota- 
tions ;  yet  wrong — Kvpiev,  in  Alex,  and  5  more  very  ancient 
M>^S.  Arraen.  Iren.  and  other  quotations  ;  preferred  by  some 
for  the  antiquity  of  authorities. — B-sov,  in  most  MSS.  Vulg. 
Ethiop.  quotations ;  generally  preferred  for  the  number  of 
authorities.  This  last  seems  rather  probable,  as  there  might 
be  a  motive  to  alter  it,  or  add  a  gloss. 

Mill,  in  loc.  and  Prol.  1365.    Grot.  Benson,  and  Griesb. 

in  loc. 

1  Tim.  iii.  16.  Great  is  the  mystery  of  godliness  ;  God  (Bsoq) 

was  manifest,"  &c.     So  it  is  in  almost  all  MSc:.     Alex,  is 

doubtful ;  but  it  is  never  so  quoted  by  the  Fathers  in  contro- 


256         RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS. 

versies,  prior  to  Gregory  of  Nyssa ;   it  is  said  to  have  been 
put  in  by  Macedonius  or  Anastasius;  it  suits  the  sense  best, 
and  IS  probable. — o,  in  Clerm.  Vulg.   Syr.  Ethiop.  Armen. 
and  several  Latin  quotations  ;  "  the  mystery  manifest  in  the 
flesh,"  is  harsh. — os,  in   1  MS.  perhaps  also  in  Alex,  and  in 
several  Greek  quotations ;    it  seems,  from  the  accusation  of 
Macedonius  to  have  been  then  common;    but  it  has  no  an- 
tecedent    Any  of  these  readings  is  easily  accounted  for. 
Mill,  in  loc  and  Prol.  489,   1034,   1035.      Wetst.  Prol.  c. 
16.  §  12.     Crell.  in  loc.     Vorst.  ib.  Benson,  ib.  Griesb. 
ib.     Syke's  Connex.  c.  12. 

789.  Of  two  readings  equally,  or  almost  equally, 
supported  by  external  evidence,  that  is  probable,  which 
best  suits  the  sease,  or  the  nature  of  the  language,  or 
which  could  not,  so  readily  as  the  other,  have  been 
written  by  mistake. 

Isa  xxxiv.  16.  "  My  mouth,  it  (NTH  "'2)  hath  commanded,  and 
his  Spirit,"  &c.  Here  is  a  disagreeable  change  of  person  ; 
but  mn'  '3,  "  the  mouth  of  Jehovah,"  in  3  ancient  MSS.  2 
others.  70. 

Ken.  and  Lowth  in  loc. 

2Cor.  V.  15.  "  If  [ei]  one  died  for  all,"  is  omitted  in  many 
MSS.  some  of  them  very  ancient,  and  in  quotations;  but 
the  sense  requires  it ;  and  it  might  be  easily  left  out  be- 
fore eU. 

Mill.  Kust.     Griesb,  in  loc.  and  Prol.  748. 

2  Tim.  ii.  19.   Eyva  Kv^tos TO    ovoftx   XpicTov;     h\li  y^vptev,  in 

23  MSS.  most  ancient.  Vulg.  Syr.  Arab.  Copt.  Ethiop.  quo- 
tations.   The  sense  requires  it. 

Mill.  Kust.  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 

790.  The  sense,  and  other  internal  evidences,  may 
even  render  the  reading  of  a  few  MSS.  probable,  in 
in  opposition  to  that  of  the  greater  number,  and  of  ver- 
sions and  quotations. 


RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.    257 

Psal.  xxii.  1.  «  Why  hast  thou  forsaken  me  ?"  'jn^Tjr ;  but 
'yr\r\ysff  in  l  MS. ;  this  comes  nearer  to  a-cc^xxdxvt  in  Matth. 
xxvii.  46.  Mark  xv.  34.  but  it  is  not  the  same,  and,  there- 
fore has  not  been  altered  from  design ;  it  is,  consequently* 
of  greater  authority.  "Why  art  thou  so  far  from  helping 
me.'  -nvm^D  ;  but  ^ri;;iK'D  «  from  my  cry."  in  6  MSS. :— this 
last  is  probable. 

Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  c.  S6,  216. 

Isa.  V.  1.      «  Now  will  I  sing to  my  beloved."^*i^iy 

"a  song,"  is  added  in  1  ancient  MS.  and  the  metre  requires 
it. — "  A  song  of  my  beloved,^^  'in  ;    perhaps  for  O'ln  «  of 
loves."     This  avoids  the  impropriety  of  making  the  author 
the  same  to  whom  it  is  sung. 
Lowth  and  Ken.  in  loc. 
Isa.  ix.  14.    "  The  Lord  will  cut  off  head  and  tail,  &c.  Or 
nnx  one  day  " — ara  "  in  one  day,"  in  8  MSS.  Eng.    The 
sense  requires  it. 
Ken.  and  Lowth,  ib. 
Isa.  X.  5.     "  0  Assyrian,  the  rod  of  mine  anger  DT2  Nin  riDni 
■•oj^T,  "  and  he  the  staff  in  their  hand   is  my  indignation. 
But  in^D,  in  2  ancient  MSS.  3  more.      70.  Alex,   "the 
staff  in  whose  hand  is  mine  indignation."     The  sense  re- 
quires this. 
lid.  ib. 
Isa.  xix.  12.    "  Where  are  thy  wise  men  ? — and  let  them  tell." 
)  is  here  superfluous  and  embarrassing.     1X3,  "let  them 
come,  and,"  &c.  is  added  in  2  MSS.  and  is  agreeable  to  the 
structure.    "And  let  them  know,"  un^l— "  let  them  declare." 
ij;nr.  70.  Vulg. 
Lowth  in  loc. 
Isa.  XXV.  2.  "  Thou  hast  made  a  palace  of  strangers  {CD^^])  to 
be  no  city."     QHT,  "  the  proud,"  in  2  MSS.  and  70.  these 
two  words  are  often  confounded ;   the  last  is  preferable. — 
anv  "adversaries,"  in  1  MS.  but  less  probable. — V,  5. 
"  the  noise  (a^'^T)  of  strangers ;"    but  ani  in  70.  which 
makes  it  parallel  to  "terrible,"  as  Psal.  liv.  5.  Ixxxvi.  14. 
33 


258  RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS. 

lid.  in  loc. 

Isa.  XXX.  32.  "  where  moiD  the  grounded  staff  shall  pass  ;"  this 
gives  no  sense.     niDlD,  "  the  rod  of  correction"  in  2  MSS. 
Prov.  xxii.  15. 
lid.  ib. 

Acts  xi.  20.  "  They  spake  yrpoi  rov^  £AAj)v<r«5,  to  the  hellenistical 
Jews;"  so  most  MSS.  but  it  answers  not  to  v.  19.  the  in- 
formation is  of  no  moment,  and  is  not  new,  ch.  vi.  1.  £AAj}v«5, 
in  Alex.  Vulg.  Syr.  Arab.  Ethiop.  "  Greeks,"  Gentiles. 
This  is  proper,  and  gives  new  information  ;  it  was  the  first 
instance  after  Peter. 

Mill.  Benson,  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 

2  Cor.  V.  3.  "  If  so  be  that  being  clothed  [evSva-xf^evoi)  we  shall 
not  be  found  naked."  So  most  MSS.  Vers.  Clem.  Alex, 
some  copies  of  Ambrose  and  Chrysost. ;  but  the  sentiment  is 
trifling,  and  connects  not  with  v.  2.  nor  v.  4. — tK^'vTUf^aoi, 
"  we  he  even  unclothed ;"  in  Clerm.  Germ,  both  very  ancient, 
some  copies  of  Ambr.  and  Chrys.  Ital.  Tertul.  twice.  This 
implies  a  seeming  contradiction,  and  therefore  has  been  cor- 
rected into  the  former  reading.  But  the  contradiction  is 
not  real ;  "  though  stript  of  our  body  by  death,  we  shall  not 
be  naked,  because  we  shall  receive  a  glorious  body,'  v.  1. 
this  connects  well  with  v.  2.  and  v.  4,  and  is  most  probable. 
Mill,  in  loc. 

791.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch^  alone  may  render 
a  reading  in  the  books  of  Moses  highly  probable,  if  it 
be  supported  by  the  sense,  connexion,  or  parallel  pla- 
ces, in  opposition  to  another  found  in  MSS.  and  ver- 
sions, but  unsuitable  to  these  internal  circumstances. 

Gen.  XX.  13.  xxxv.  7.  CD^nSx,  meaning  the  true  God,  has  here  a 
plural  verb,  which  is  wrong  ;  but  it  is  singular  in  Sam.  in  all 
the  copies  of  it. 

792.  One  or  a  few  ancient  versions,  may  render  a 
reading  probable,  when  it  is  strongly  supported  by  the 


RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.    259 

sense,  connexion,  or  parallel  places,  in  opposition  to 
one  which  suits  not  these,  though  found  in  other  ver- 
sions and  in  MSS. 

Gen.xiv.  20.  "He  gave  tjthes"— ambiguous,  whether  Mel- 
chizedeck  or  Abraham  ;  it  seems  rather  the  former;    but  it 
was  the  latter,  Heb.  vii.  4.  and  70.  Aid.  and  Vat.  have  z^aKtv 
uvTO)  AQpctxfA,,  which  is  probably  genuine. 
Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  31. 
Isa.  V.  30,  x^^h  £3:3Ji,  «  and  he  shall  look  to  the  earth,*'  Heb. 
70.  Vat.  and  Alex.— -but,  "  to  the  heaven  above,  and  to  the 
earth  below,"  in  MSS.  of  70.  and  in  Copt,  which  is  proper, 
and  agreeable  to  ch.  viii.  22. ;    it  is  countenanced  by  70, 
Compl.  and  Aid.  « to  the  heaven  above,  and  below,'*  and  by 
Arab.  «  to  the  heaven,  and  to  the  earth  below,"  though  both 
are  also  defective. 
Lowth  in  loc. 
Isa.  ix,  20.  «  They  shall  eat  every  one  the  flesh  of  his  own 
arm,^^  )inL  but  this  is  inconsistent  with  v.  21.  or  an  anti- 
climax,   un,  "  of  his  neighbour,"  Chald.  so  Jer.  xix.  9.    The 
70.  renders  both,  t«  fipuxiovo^  m  cthx<pov  uvth. 
Lowth  ib. 

Isa.  xiii.  14     «'  ft  shall  be  as  the  chased  roe."     What  ?— « the 
remnant,"  ixiy,  70. 
Lowth  ib, 
Isa.  xl.  5.  "  All  flesh  shall  see— together."     What  ?— •«  the  sal- 
vation of  God."  70.  Luke  iii.  6.  Isa.  Hi.  10. 
Lowth  ib 

Isa,  xli.  1.     "  Keep  silence,"  Vkt'nnn.— •"  be|  renewed,"  li^nnn, 
70.  agreeably  to  the  structure. 
Lowth  ib^ 

793.  The  concurrence  of  all,  or  most  of  the  an- 
cient versions,  in  a  reading  not  found  in  MSS.  now 
extant,  renders  it  probable,  if  it  be  agreeable  to  the 
sense,  though  not  absolutely  necessary  to  it. 


260         RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS. 

1  Sam.  ix.  7.  lif'nh,  "  to  the  man  ;"  but  Q^nSi^n  iy'«S,  "to  the 

the  man  of  God,"  in  only  1  MS.  but  in  Chald.  and  all  the 

ancient  versions. 

Ken  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  p.  87.  n, 
Psal.  xcvii.  11.  "Light  is  sown,^''  yni :  this  is  a  harsh  metaphor  ; 

but  nn?,  "  ariseth,"  in  all  the  ancient  versions  except  Chald. 

So  Psl.  cxii.  4. 
Isa.  xxxi  6.  "  They  have  revolted,"  ip^D^rn  ;   but,  "  ye  have 

revolted,"  ip'Dj^n  in  all  the  ancient  versions. 
Lowth  ib. 

794.  Conjectural  readings^  strongly  supported  by 
the  sense,  the  connexion,  the  nature  of  the  language, 
or  similar  texts,  may  sometimes  have  probability  ;  es- 
pecially, when  it  can  be  shown,  that  they  would  easily 
have  given  occasion  to  the  present  reading  ;  and,  read- 
ings, first  suggested  merely  by  conjecture,  have,  in 
several  cases,  been  afterwards  found  to  be  actually  in 
MSS. 

Gen.  i.  8.  "And  God  saw  that  it  was  good,"  is  wanting  of  the 
second  day,  but  is  found  in  v.  10.  in  the  middle  of  the  third 
day.  Either,  "  and  the  evening,"  &c.  has  been  transposed 
from  V.  10.  to  v.  8.  or  "  and  God  saw,''  &c.  from  v.  8.  to  v. 
10.  This  last  seems  preferable  ;  for  the  70.  has  it  in  both 
places. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  80,  81. 

Josh.  xxiv.   19.  iSdid  xS,  "  Ye  cannot  serve  the  Lord."     This 
seems  strange,  after  exhortations  to  serve  him,  and  before 
reasons  for  serving  him.     iSdh  nS,  "  cease  not  to  serve  the 
Lord,"  properly  enforced  by  the  reasons  which  follow. 
Hallet's  Notes,  V.  3.  p.  2.  Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  375. 

Psal.  Ixxviii.  2.  is  not  suitable  to  the  Psalm,  which  is  histori- 
cal ;  the  pronoun  is  sing,  but  plur.  in  v.  3.  It  is  quoted 
Mat.  xiii.  35.  as  from  a  prophet,  and  as  a  prediction  of  the 
Messiah's  speaking  in  parables  ;    it  is,  likewise,  originally 


RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.  261 

quoted  from  Isaiah,  in  Porphjr.  Jerom.  some  copies  in  his 
time,  and  3  MSS.  and  therefore  has  been  originally  in 
Isaiah. 

Wetst.  Griesb.  and  Mill,  in  loc. 
-  Isa.  xxiv.  15.  "Glorify  the  Lord  anx3  in  f/ze /res ;"  the 
word  is  irregular.  IlDmN3  in  23.  MSS.  regular,  but  strange. 
Hence  several  conjectures.  anx^^,  "in  the  rivers." 
CD^-^n:],  "  in  the  mountains."  CD^rDXD,  a^D^^,  "  among  the 
nations."  a^\X3,  **  in  the  islands  or  distant  coasts  :"  this 
last  is  most  probable. 

Lowth  in  loc. 
Isa.  XXX.  18.  "  Therefore  will  he  be  exalted  an^  that  he  may 
have  mercy."     an%  "be  silent,"  which  is  more  agreeable 
to  the  structure  and  the  sense. 

Lowth,  ib. 
Isa.  xlii.  20.  mm  rn'X'^,  '*  Thou  seest  many  things."  ^-^1N^ 
"seeing,"  Keri.  107  MSS.  5  Edit.  Eng.— but  probably 
nixi  n\x%  "seeing  thou  shalt  see,"  i.  e.  "  surely,  indeed." 
See  ch.  vi.  9.  V'!^^\  "  he  heareth,"  wrong.  ]::2v;r\,  "  thou 
hearest,"  in  40  MSS.  and  all  the  ancient  versions ;  the  sense 
requires  this. 

Lowth,  ib. 

795.  Probable  readings  may  have  so  high  a  degree 
of  evidencej  as  justly  entitles  them  to  be  inserted  into 
the  text^  in  place  of  the  received  readings  much  less 
probable.  Such  as  have  not  considerably  higher  pro- 
bability than  the  common  ones,  should  only  be  put  on 
the  margin ;  but,  they,  and  all  others,  ought  to  be 
weighed  with  impartiality. 

796.  3.  Readings  are  dubious,  when  the  evidence 
for,  and  against  them,  is  so  equally  balanced,  that  it 
is  difficult  to  determine  which  of  them  preponderates. 


262         IIULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS. 

797.  When  MSS.,  versions,  and  other  authorities, 
are  equally,  or  almost  equally,  divided  between  read- 
ings which  all  suit  the  sense  and  connexion,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  determine  which  of  them  ought  to  be  preferred. 

Gen.  iv.  15.  ph,  "  therefore,"  Heb.  Sam.  Aq,— p  «S,  "  not  so," 
70.  Sjr.  Vulg.  Theodot.  Sjm. 
Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  78. 
Isa.  iii.  8.  "  To  provoke  the  eyes  {'});)  of  his  glory,"  common 
Edit,  many  MSlS.  irregular. — 'ly,  most  MSS.  several  Edit. 
':  on  a  rasure  in  one  MS.  }  in  one  MS. '  in  one  MS.;  per- 
haps it  should  be  pj^,  "  the  cloud,'^^  alluding  to  that  above  the 
tabernacle. 

Lowth  and  Ken.  in  loc. 
Isa.  xix   18.  "One  shall  be  called  the   city  Dnnn  of  destruc- 
tion," in  most  MSS.  and  Edit.  Aq.  Theodot.  Syr.   some 
think,  to  intimate  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  temple  in 
Egypt ;  others,  as  in  the  Arabic  it  signifies  "  a  lion,"  for 
Lentopolis.     Dinn,  «  of  the  sun,"  in  11  MSS.  5  Edit.  Sym. 
Vulg.  Arab.  70.  Compl.  Talmud,  several  copies  of  the  12th 
century  mentioned  by  Aben  Ezra,  quoted  by  Onias  in  favour 
of  the  Jewish  temple  in  Egypt,  as  predicting  the  place  of  it, 
Heliopolis.     Some  prefer  the  former,  which  they  think,  has 
been  corrupted  by  Onias,  designedly,  in  some  copies  of  the 
Heb.  and  most  of  the  70.  which  have  ua-eSeK,  "of  righteous- 
ness."    Others  prefer  the  latter,  which  they  think  has  been 
corrupted  by  the  Jews  of  Palestine  designedly,  from  ha- 
tred to  the  Egyptian  temple.      Perhaps  the  latter  is  rather 
preferable* 
Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  §  21,  126.     Lowth  in  loc. 
Ikenii  Diss.  16.     Owen's  State  of  the  70.  p.  41.    Bry- 
ant's Obs.  p.  131. 
Mat.  V.  22.  "  Angry  with  his  brother  eno]  without  cause,*^  most 
MSS.   Syr.  Copt.  Goth.  Cypr.— wanting  in  3  MSS.  Vulg. 
Arab.  Ethiop.  Justin.  Irenee.  &c.  in  Greek  copies  according 
to  Augustin. 


RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.    263 

Mill,  in  loc.  and  Prol.  302,  343,  369,  384,  857,  1256. 
Whitby,  Exam.  1.  2.  c  1.  §  1.  Campbell  and  Griesb. 
in  loc. 

Mat.  vi.  13.  'Ort  era  eo-nv  ^  jixTtXsix,  &c.  most  MSS.  Sjr.  Goth. 
Chrysost—but  wanting  in  3  most  ancient  MSS.  Compl. 
Hebrew  of  the  Nazarenes  Vulg.  Copt.  Arab.  Sax.  Grig. 
Cyril.  Greg.  Nyss.  all  Latin  Fathers,  and  in  Luke  xi.  It 
was  the  common  conclusion  in  Greek  liturgies,  whence  it  has 
been  interpolated. 

Mill,  in  loc.  and  Prol.  385,  888.  1098,  1360,  Whitby,  ib. 
§  2.    Campbell  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 

John  vi.  56.  there  is  added,  KxS^i  ev  sfjcoi  o  Trxrup,  xeiya  ev  ru 
Tcxrpi.  Af^ijv,  ociLajy  Xsyu  vf^iv,  exv  fit)  X(X,Qi)Te  re  crafjLoi  m  vtov 
Tcv  ecv6p6>7rov,  wq  toy  ec^rov  rt}^    ^a»^5,    ax,   f%er£    ^atjv  sv    etvra,    in 

Camb.  gr.  and  lat.  Mill,  thinks  it  genuine,  (Prol.  779,  780, 
1268.)  but  it  has  been  interpolated  from  a  gloss. 
Simon,  N.  T,  p.  1.  c.  30.  Campbell  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 
2  Cor.  xi.  3.  "  Corrupted  cctto  rta  uxXorviroq  from  the  simplic- 
ity."— «iyvoT3jTfl5,  "  chastity,"  ancient  Latin  quot. — ayvori)- 
Ttq  Kxt  m^  oc^AarjjTas,  some  ancient  MSS. — uTrXor^roi  xut  ky- 
voTijreg,  one  MS.  Mill,  in  loc.  thinks  these  a  gloss;  but  ac- 
cording to  Kuster.  prsef.  they  are  genuine ;  no  gloss  was 
necessary,  nor  are  the  words  synonymous  ;  they  both  refer 
to  what  precedes. 

Rom.  xi.  6.  Et  h  e|  spyav,  &c.  to  end  of  the  verse,  are  found  in 
the  greatest  number  of  MsJS.but  wanting  in  the  most  ancient, 
Alex.  Clerm.  Germ.  Vulg.  Copt. 

Erasm.  Zeger.  Est.  Grot.  Mill.  Griesb.  in  loc. 

1  John  ii.  23.  *0  of^oXoym  rev  viov,  xect  rev  -TFurspct  c;^Jf/,  wanting 
in  most  MSS.  but  found  in  Alex,  and  12  more. — interpola- 
tion or  omission  equally  easy,  and  no  argument  can  be  drawn 
from  the  connexion.  They  are  inserted  in  Eng.  in  a  different 
character. 

Mill,  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 


264    RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS. 

798.  The  sense,  and  other  internal  evidences,  may 
plead  so  strongly  for  one  reading,  and  the  authority  of 
MSS.  and  versions  so  strongly  for  another,  as  to  ren- 
der it  doubtful  which  ought  to  be  preferred. 

Isa.  i.  13.  nni'j,n  yi<,  Eng.  "  iniqiiity,  even  the  solemn  meet- 
ing." There  are  many  different  translations ;  the  sense  of  all 
of  them  good,  but  not  arising  naturally  from  the  phrase. — 
vTj^etxv.  aiy,  70.  "the  fast  and  the  solemn  meeting;"  it 
was  natural  to  mention  it,  as  Joel  i.  14.  ii.  15. 
Houbig.  and  Lowth  in  Loc. 

Rom.  vii.  25.  Ey;^«ef<s-<w  ro)  Oso),  "  1  thank  God,"  most  MSS. 
and  Vers, — Z'^P'^  ^^  "^V  ®^^>  "  B"t  thanks  be  to  God,"  in  3 
MbS.  and  Jerom. ;  but  this  is  synonymous  with  the  former, 
and  worse  supported. — >;eff<5  th  0f«,  "the  grace  of  God,"  in 
4  ancient  MSft.  Vulg.  Irense.  Grig,  and  other  quotations. 
This  gives  a  proper  answer,  and  is  a  proper  proof  of  the 
inference  in  ch.  viii.  1. 

Mill,  in  loc.  and  Prol.  679,  934,  1332.     Locke  in  loc. 

799.  Both  the  external  and  the  internal  evidence 
may  be  so  much  divided  between  two  readings,  as  to 
render  it  doubtful  which  of  them  demands  the  pre- 
ference. 

Rom.  xii.  11.  Ta>  KYPIli  ^aXtvo^reiy  "  serving  tlie  Lord,'^^  Alex. 
12  more.  Vulg.  Syr.  Arab.  Ethiop.  several  Greek  quot. 
all  the  Latin  except  Ambr.  Edit.  Compl.  1  Erasm.  Bez. 
This  gives  a  good  and  obvious  sense,  and  points  out  the 
object  of  zeal. — Kutpoj,  "  the  opportunity,"  in  2  of  Steph.  mss. 
Clerm.  Germ.  Ital.  Ambr.  Edit.  2.  &c.  of  Erasm.  Steph. 
This,  too,  gives  a  proper  sense,  the  regulation  of  zeal  ac- 
cording to  seasons,  but  less  obvious,  and  therefore  might  be 
altered. 

Mill,  in  loc.  and  Prol.  643.    Crell.  Vorst.  Griesb.  in  loc. 

800.  There  are  passages,  especially  in  the  Old 
Testament,  where  the  paucity  of  independent  MSS. 


RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.    265 

or  their  discordance^  the  obscurity,  or  the  variations, 
of  the  versions,  or  other  defects  of  evidence  for  any 
one  reading,  render  it  very  doubtful  what  is  the  gen- 
uine reading,  and  leave  room  for  diife rent  conjectures. 

Isa.  ix.  9.  "All  the  4)eople  {VJT)  shall  know^  What? 
in3Jl,  "  carry  themselves  haughtily,'*  which  makes  it  parallel 
to  the  next  clause,  Chald. — un",  "are  depraved,"  Houbig. 
1  MS. — n^T,  **  shall  speak,"  referring  to  iDvh,  "  and  say," 
in  the  next  line.  Seeker. 
Lowth  in  loo. 

Isa.  xvii.  2.    "  The  cities  '^V'^]^  of  Aroer  are  forsaken,"  but, 
to  say,  cities  of  a  city  is  improper,  and  it  has  no  relation  to 
Damascus. — 'i^   "^Vy  "for   ever."   70. — "are  laid    waste," 
Chald. 
Lowth,  ib. 

Isa.  lii.  15.  "  So  ij\v)  shall  he  sprinkle  many  nations."  This 
is  the  constant  sense,  here  supposed  metaphorical,  of  the 
word ;  but  it  is  always  followed  by  hy.^^S'xvfAeta-ovrui,  "  ma- 
ny nations  shall  admire,"  70.  thus  it  is  parallel  to  the  next 
clause ;  but  what  have  they  read  ? — nnr  is  so  used.  ch.  ii. 
2.  Jer.  xxxi.  12.  li.  44.  but  it  is  unlike  the  other  word. 
(Seeker.) — l.n*  is  like  it,  and  is  used  for  "looking  with 
approbation  or  admiration,"  Psal.  xi.  7.  xvii.  15.  xxvii.  4. 
Ixviii.  2.  and  for  "looking  on  God,"  Exod.  xxiv.  11.  Job.- 
xix.  26.  (Durel.  Jubb.) 
Lowth  in  loc. 

801.  No  dubious  reading  should  be  taken  into  the 
text,  in  place  of  what  is  already  there ;  for,  no  al- 
teration ought  to  be  made  in  the  received  copies,  with- 
out positive  reason ;  and,  such  dubious  readings  as 
are  already  in  the  text,  should  be  marked  as  such, 
and  the  others  put  on  the  margin  ;  but,  every  person 
is  at  liberty  to  use  his  own  judgment  in  choosing  which 
he  pleases. 

34 


^266  RULES  COINCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS. 

802.  4.  There  are  readings  which  are  wrong ; 
and  of  this  kind,  are  far  the  greatest  part  of  the  varia- 
tions from  the  received  copies  ;  but,  to  it  belong,  like- 
wise, several  which  have,  by  the  injudiciousness,  the 
inattention,  or  the  prejudices  of  transcribers  and  edi- 
tors, been  admitted  into  these  ;  and  such  readings  are 
either  certainly  wrong, — or,  probably  wrong. 

803.  All  readings  are  certainly  wrong,  which  stand 
in  opposition  to  the  several  classes  of  readings  certain- 
ly genuine  ;  of  which,  therefore,  many  examples  have 
been  already  given  ;  but  others  may,  without  impro- 
priety, be  added  ;  particularly,  such  as  have  been 
very  generally  received,  and  yet  bear  plain  marks  of 
their  being  corruptions,  as  implying  barbarism,  incon- 
sistency, or  the  like. 

1    Sam.  ii.  3.  CZ3D*3D  pnj;  J?V%«lef — arrogancy   come   out  of 
your   mouth." — nS  is   omitted,  "  let  not,"   &c.  Chald.  .70. 
Syr.  Arab.  Eng.    The  sense  requires  it, — lJDr\:  xSl,  "and 
actions  are  not  weighed  ;"  this  is  absurd ;  bu  )h),  "  and  by 
him,"  Keri,  about  40  M.-S.  Eng,  Vulg. 
Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  1.  p.  450. 
1   Sam,  xii.  10.  ipj^n,  "  and  they  cried,  irni^')  and  he  said." 
but  nr.:/"i,  "and  they  said  "  Keri,  above  50  MSS. 
Ken.  ib.  and  Diss.  Gen.  §  38. 

804.  Readings  which  imply  barbarism,  solecism,  or 
absurdity,  may  be  pronounced  certainly  wrong,  though 
we  know  of  no  reading,  certainly  right,  to  be  substitut- 
ed in  their  place. 

Isa.  xliv,  8.  "in"in  no  where  occurs. — ITT^^n  in  2  MSS.  perhaps 
it  should  be  iNi^n,  "  fear  ye."     Seeker. 
Lowth  in  loc. 


RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.    2G7 

805.  All  readings  are  probably  wrong,  which  stand 
in  opposition  to  such  as  are  probably  genuine  ;  and 
these,  too,  have  been  already  exemplified  in  many 
instances. 

806.  Readings  which  imply  considerable  irregular- 
ity, or  impropriety^  are  probably  false,  though  it 
be  not  clear  what  reading  should  be  adopted  instead 
of  them. 

807.  Readings,  certainly  or  very  probably  false, 
ought  to  be  expunged  from  the  editions  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  departed  from  in  versions  of  them,  how- 
ever long  and  generally  they  have  usurped  a  place 
there,  as  being  manifest  corruptions^  which  impair  the 
purity  of  the  sacred  books. 

808.  Among  texts,  the  true  reading  of  which  is  con- 
troverted, the  most  remarkable  in  several  respects  is 
]  John  V.  7,  8.  where  the  words,  sv  rea  ovpavo),  o  TocTfjfi 
0  Xoyogt  xcct  to  n.yiov  Tfgy^a,  xut  ovroi  oi  rpstg  Iv  Bt(rr 
zoct  T^stg  SKTtv  fj(joc^Tv^ovvT2g  t¥  T7^  yi^^  are  by  some  held 
to  be  genuine,  and  by  others  to  be  spurious ;  and,  all 
the  kinds  of  evidence,  both  external  and  internal,  hav- 
ing been  urged  on  both  sides,  it  is  only  by  a  fair  com- 
parison of  them  all,  that  it  can  be  determined,  in 
which  of  the  four  classes  this  reading  out  to  be 
placed. 

Mill,  in  loc.  We  t  .  ib.  Bengel.  ib.  Griesb.  ib.  Simon, 
N.  T.  p.  1,      18.    Marsh's  Michael.    Pappelbaum. 

External.  MSS.  For  the  text. — It  is  supposed  to  be  in  8  of 
Steph  Vat.  some  seen  by  Simon,  one  mentioned  by  Eras- 
mus, some  by  Cajetan,  some  by  Valla,  some  by  the  Louvaine 
divines;  it  is  in  %  the  Dublin  and  Berlin  MSS. — Against  it. 


268    RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS. 

It  is  not  in  any  of  Steph.  nor  in  the  Vat.  nor  in  any  seen  by 
Simon.  Erasmus  says  not  that  he  saw  one,  nor  has  any  per- 
son found  it.  Cajetan  was  misinformed,  and  Valla  is  mis- 
represented. The  Louvaine  divines  mean  Latin  copies. 
The  Dublin  MS,  is  very  modern  ;  and  the  Berlin  MS.  has 
been  carefully  collated  by  Pappelbaum,  and  proved  to  be 
almost  a  mere  transcript  from  the  Complutensian. 

Versions.  For  it.  Vulg. ;  in  all  Edit,  and  most  MSB. ;  all 
modern  versions  ;  supposed  to  be  in  Ital.  and  Armen. — 
Against  it.  Arab.  Ethiop.  Copt.  Pers.  Russ.  Syr.  in  all 
MSS.  and  some  Edit  Armen.  in  ail  ancient  copies.  Vulg. 
in  many  MSS.  and  the  most  ancient;  in  others,  differently 
placed  ;  in  Jerome's  and  Ital.  Luther,  in  some  editions. 
Zuingl.  Bullmger.  Eng.  edit,  till  after  1556. 

Quotations.  For  it.  (Greek.)  Dissertation  placed  in  Atha- 
nas.  Lateran  Council,  as  from  some  Greek  copies  of  the 
13th  century.  Calecas,  14th  century.  (Latin.)  supposed  in 
Tertull.  and  Cyprian,  and  Explan.  fidei ;  it  is  in  the  Pre- 
face to  the  Catholic  Epistles,  Victor  Vitens.  Vigilius  Tap- 
sens.  Fulgentius;  and  is  positively  rejected  by  none. — 
Against  it.  (Greek.)  No  Antenicene  writer,  nor  Nicene 
Council ;  no  writer  for  above  700  years,  though  it  might  of- 
ten have  been  for  their  purpose.  (Latin.)  No  writer  for 
above  800  years.  Tertull.  and  Cypr.  are  misunderstood. 
The  Preface  to  the  Catholic  Epistles  is  spurious  and  late  ; 
all  the  others  are  too  late  The  text  could  not  be  positively 
rejected,  because  it  was  not  known. 

Editions.  For  it.  Compl.  Erasm.  3d.  &c.  Steph.  Beza, 
and  all  the  common  ones  derived  from  these. — Against  it. 
Erasm.  1st  and  2.  Alb.  Haguenau  Strasburg.  Colingeus,  afid 
several  derived  from  these.     Griesb. 

Internal.  Connexion.  For  it.  The  connexion  is  imperfect, 
as  there  would  be  only  witnesses  on  earth  ;  it  is  referred  to, 
v.  9.  "  the  witness  of  God  ;"  it  is  a  proof  of  v.  5,  6.  and 

properly  beings  with   on,  v.  7.  and  not  with  aett,  v.  8. 

Against  it.  The  connexion  requires  it  not ;  three  witnesses 
are  sufficient,  and  the  apostle  says  not  that  they  are  "  on 


RULES  CONCERNING  VARIOUS  READINGS.         269 

earth."  V.  4,  refers  not  to  this,  but  to  what  follows,  and 
the  proof  does  begin  with  iri.  The  connexion  will  not  bear 
it ;  it  disjoins  v.  6.  and  v.  8.  improperly ;  and  the  same  wit- 
ness would  be  unfairly  reckoned  twice. 

Occasion.  For  it.  Tlie  text  has  been  omitted  by  the  Arians 
or  Gnostics,  accidentally  and  easily;  it  could  not  be  added 
from  a  gloss,  because  there  is  no  such  gloss  in  any  Greek 
Ms. — Against  it.  It  was  a  mystical  interpretation  of  v.  8. 
written  on  the  margin  of  some  Latin  copies  ;  whence  it  was 
taken  into  the  text,  and  translated  into  Greek ;  it  could  not 
easily  be  omitted  accidentally,  far  less  so,  generally. 


270  SEPARATE  WORDS. 


CHAP.  IL 


The  Explication  of  Separate  Words. 

809.  The  first  and  simplest  object  of  explanatory 
or  interpretative  criticism^  is,  separate  words. 

810.  The  difficulties  in  these  regard — the  combina- 
tion of  letters  into  words — irregular  forms  and  flexions 
— the  general  signification  of  words — their  different 
kinds,  as  nouns,  verbs,  particles — and  the  determina- 
tion of  the  kind  to  which  they  belong ;  and  these 
several  classes  of  difficulties  suggest  a  natural  distri- 
bution of  this  branch  of  criticism. 


SECT.  I. 

The  Combination  of  Letters  into  Words. 

811.  The  proper  combination  of  letters  into  the 
diff'erent  words  which  they  were  designed  to  form,  na- 
turally claims  our  first  attention,  both  by  its  analogy 
to  corrective  criticism,  and  by  its  being  fundamental 
to  what  is  properly  explanatory. 

812.  All  ancient  MSS.  being  written  without  any 
distances  between  words,  they  cannot  show  in  what 


COMBINATION  OT  LETTERS  INTO  WORDS.         271 

manner  the  author  meant  that  the  words  should  be 
distinguished ;  and,  in  distinguishing  them  rightly, 
there  is  often  difficulty ;  and  mistakes  may  be,  and 
have  been  committed. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  §  28,  1 24. 

813.  One  word  may  be,  and  has  sometimes  been; 
improperly  divided  into  two. 

Psalm,  cvi.  7.  "  They  provoked  O'  hv  "  at  the  sea ;"  this  is 
superfluous.     tD'^y. 

Ken.  Diss.  Gen.  p.  13  n. 

Mark  vi.  25.  "  Give  me  (e|  ecyrj;?,  literally,  "  out  of  her") 
"the  head,"  &c.  So  most  MSS. ;  a^x^  to  be  supplied.  (Be- 
za) ;  but  this  is  an  awkward  phrase. — eluvrrtq  "  immediately," 
all  Vers. 

Mill,  in  loc. 

814.  Two  words  may  be,  and  have  been  improper- 
ly united  into  one. 

Psal.  Ixxiii.  4.  "No bands  (distresses)  into  their  death y^^  aninS; 
this  is  obscure. — CDn  laS,  "happen  to  them;  perfect  and 
firm  is  their  strength."     Merrick,  addenda. 

815.  Letters,  which  belong  to  the  end  of  one  word, 
have  been  separated  from  it,  and  joined  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  subsequent  word. 

1  Chnm.  ii.  1 8     "  Caleb  begat  Azubah  (ni;;n^  nxi  nis'N)  wife 
and  Jerioth;^^    this   is   absurd.     The  70.  Vulg    and  Eng. 
mistranslate. — n^V'^  rix  ini^K  "  begat  Jerioth  of  Azubah  his 
wife  "     Syr.  Arab. 
Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  482. 

816.  Letters,  which  belong  to  the  beginning  of  one 
word,  have  been  added  to  the  end  of  the  preceding 
w^ord. 


272  COMBINATION  OF  LETTERS  INTO  WORDS. 

Hos.  vi.  5.  IIN  *|*D3kyDl,  "  Md  thy  judgments  the  light  goeth 
forth  ;"  this  gives  no  sense.— *11KD  ^tODl^rDi,  "  ^nd  my  judg- 
ment shall  go  forth  as  the  light,-^  all  ancient  Vers,  except 
Vulg. 

Ken.  Diss.  1,  p.  517. 

817.  When,  in  later  MSS.  and  in  editions,  words 
eame  to  be  written  with  distances  between  them,  they 
were  distinguished  only  according  to  the  judgment  of 
the  transcribers  and  editors,  who  had  no  other  means 
of  direction  than  we  still  have  ;  and,  therefore,  their 
judgment  has  no  authority,  further  than  it  appears  to 
be  well  founded  ;  and,  when  they  differ,  the  diiference 
ought  to  be  impartially  examined. 

Isa.  liv.  9.  *Q '3    "For  the  waters."     iMasora. — 'D'D    "as  the 
days/'  in  2  MSS.  2  Edit.  Chald.  Syr.  Vulg.    Sym.  Theod. 
Ken.  and  Lowth  in  loc. 

818.  Versions,  quotations  illustrated  or  applied^ 
and  commentaries,  show  how  the  authors  of  them  dis- 
tinguished words  ;  and,  where  they  differ,  suggest  dif- 
ferent modes  of  arrangement,  which  ought  to  be  fair- 
ly examined  ;  but,  as  these  authors  were  not  infalli- 
ble, we  have  the  same  right  to  distinguish  the  words 
differently,  and,  generally,  the  same  means  of  judg- 
ing, which  they  had. 

819.  Whenever,  therefore,  a  text  can  be  explain- 
ed, or  a  difficulty  removed,  by  altering  the  present, 
or  the  common  distinction  of  the  words,  such  alter- 
ation may  be  made  without  scruple. 

2  Sam.  V.  2,    n^vI'D  nn'*n,  "  thou  wast  he  that  leddest  out ;" 
both  the  words  are  irregular. — ii':i^::ir^  n^^n,  Keri.    n^'n  in 
14  MSS.    N^ifi^n  in  21  MSS. 
Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  1.  p.  24. 


COMBINATIONS  OF  LETTERS  INTO  WORDS.        275 

^20.  In  judging  how  letters  ought  to  be  combined 
into  words,  great  regard  is  due  to  the  nature  of  the 
language ;  the  words,  formed  by  the  combination, 
must  always  be  such  as  belong  to  it ;  and  those,  which 
are  regular,  should  be  preferred  to  such  as  would  be 
unusually  anomalous. 

Isa.  ii.   11.  "The  lofty  looks   (pliir.)   shall  be   humbled,  and 
the  haughtiness,"  &c.  r\m  hD'^  (sing )  r\'^'  iSaiJ*. 
Lowth  in  loc. 

821.  Of  different  arrangements  of  letters  into 
words,  consistent  with  the  nature  of  the  language, 
that  ought  to  be  preferred  which  best  suits  the  sense 
and  connexion,  though  it  be  not  so  entirely  regular 
or  common  as  the  others. 

822.  But,  generally,  the  nature  of  the  language, 
and  the  sense  of  the  place,  concur  in  favouring  the 
same  combination  of  letters  ;  and,  when  they  do,  that 
combination  is   certainly  right. 

823.  When  a  particular  combination,  suitable  to 
the  language  and  the  sense,  is  likewise  countenanced 
by  MSS.  versions  or  quotations,  this  is  a  further  con- 
firmation of  its  being  right. 

Jer.  XV.  18.  n'nn  rn,  "  Wilt  thou  be  altogether?"  this  is  ir- 
regular, and  an  abrupt  transition  to  God.  n"'!!  nvn,  "  it  is 
become,"  in  1  ancient  MS.  70.  Vulg. 

Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  1.  p.  5i2.    Wall  in  loc. 
Jer.  xxiii.  33.      "Thou  shalt  say  J^Br'D  HD  nx  what  burden?" 
this  is  odd  and  incohcrent.~N'j*Dn  LD!M<,  "  Ye  are  th^  bur- 
den." 70.  Vulg. 
Ken.  ib.  p.  518. 

35 


274  IRREGULAR  FORMS. 

Jam.  V.  12.  "  Lest  ye  fall"  (f/5  t)^av-,e/c/v)  literally  "into  hypoc- 
risy.^*— So  most  MiiS.—'uyre  Koiiriv    "under   judgment,"  in 
Alex,   and   a    few  otiiers,    some    EtUt.    Yulg.   Syr.  Arab. 
Etb  op. 
Mill,  in  loc.  and  Prol.  1208,    Griesb.  in  loc. 


SECT.  II, 


Irregular  Forms  and  Flexions  of  Words, 

824.  In  the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament  there 
are  many  words  which  have  some  irregularity  in  their 
form. 

825.  The  Jews,  and  on  their  authority,  or  in  imi- 
tation of  them,  many  christians,  suppose  all  these  irre- 
gularities to  have  been  intended  by  the  inspired  writer, 
and  to  contain  some  mysterious  meaning  ;  but  the 
supposition  is  groundless,  and  the  mysteries  inferred 
are  imaginary   and   often   ridiculous. 

826.  These  irregularities  regard  either  the  vowej 
points,  or  the  letters. 

827.  Of  those  which  regard  the  vowel  points,  some 
indicate  false  readings  ;  as,  when  a  word  is  left  wholly 
without  points,  because  it  was  supposed  not  to  be  gen- 
uine, or  has  not  its  own  points,  but  those  of  another 
which  ought  to  be  substituted  in  its  place. 


IRREGULAR    FORMS.  215 

828.  Other  irregularities  in  the  vowel  points,  only 
show  the  injudiciousness  of  those  who  affixed  them  ; 
and,  therefore,  no  regard  should  be  paid  to  them,  but 
the  words  considered  and  interpreted,  as  if  they  had 
been  regularly   pointed. 

Glass.  1.  3.  t.  3.  can.  31. 

829.  Of  irregularities  regarding  the  letters,  many 
consist  in  the  defect,  the  redundance,  the  transposi- 
tion, or  the  change  of  some  of  them ;  and  all  such  are 
false  readings,  owing  to  the  blunders  of  transcribers, 
though  consecrated  by  the  Masora ;  and  ought  to  be 
corrected. 

Isa.  XXX.  5.  l^'i^an,  i^  is  superfluous,  and  not  pointed. — '^'nr\  in 
8  MSS.  and  is  regular  ;  "  they  were  ashamed.'' 
Lowth  and  Ken.  in  loc. 
V.  28.  lD'i:  HiDJnS,  the  first  word  is  very  irregular  ;    '  is  want- 
ing, and  n  superfluous ;    it  should  be  O'un  =]*:nS,  "  to  sift 
the  nations." 

Houbig.  and  Lowth  in  loc. 
Ezek.  xiv.  1.  i^)2'),  irregular. — ixn'l  in  2  MSS.  which  is  right; 
others  vary.     N3"l  in  28  MSS. ;  INU^I  in  2  MSS. 
Ken.  in  loc.  and  Diss.  Gen.  p.  83.  n. 

830.  Otherirregularities  respecting  the  letters  seem 
to  arise  from  a  mixture  of  different  persons,  tenses 
and  conjugations  ;  and  it  has  been  common  to  suppose, 
that  such  words  unite  the  sense  of  both  the  forms  which 
are  mixed  in  them  ;  but  the  supposition  is  without 
foundation,  the  irregularity  being  only  a  false  reading, 
which  ought  to  be  corrected. 

Glass,  ib. 

Exod.  XXV.  31.  nu^i^M,  an   irregular  compound  of  n^'^'n  "  tliou 


276  IRREGULAR  FORMS. 

sbalt  make,"  and  Tiu/y,  "  let  be  made."  It  is  supposed  to 
contain  some  mysterious  meaning ;  but  it  has  none.  The 
connexion  shews  the  former  reading  to  be  right;  and  it  is 
found  in  the  Sam.  and  above  140  MSS. 

Ken.  in  loo.  and  Diss.  1.  p.  402.     Diss  Gen.  §  42,  52. 

Isa.  Ixiii.  3.  'nSs^JX,  compounded  of  the  future  S«:«  "  I  will 
stain,"  and  the  prssterite  M^fc^J  "  I  have  stained." — but 
inSxjK  in  I  MS.  which  is  regular,  viz.  the  future  with  the 
affix  pronoun,  affected  bj  the  conversive  1  before,  "  I  have 
stained  them." 

Glass,  ib.     Ken.  and  Lowth  in  loc. 

Jer.  xxii,  23.  ^Jl^^l^  a  compound,  with  jod  paragogical,  of 
the  prfeterite  hj^'S  and  participle  ri^^V*  "  who  inhabit- 
edst,  and  still  dost  inhabit;"  but  n^K;^  inKeri,  and  11  MSS. 
and  n^WV  in  1  MS. ;  the  former  is  best  supported,  but  the 
points  are  wrong. — ^jl^^pO  a  compound,  with  jod  paragog. 
of  the  prgeterite  r)!!!!^*  and  participle  njjpjp,  both  in  Pjh. 
"  nestled  and  nestleth^"  but  njJpD  in  Keri  and  9  MSS  and 
nj^lpD  in  7  MSS. ;  it  is  the  participle  wrong  pointed  ;  "  thou 
inhabitedst  Lebanon,  nestling  in  the  cedars." — TiJnj,  but 
nin-J  in  Keri  and  59  MSS.,  which  is  right. 
Ken.  in  loc.  Glass,  ib. 

831.  There  are,  likewise,  irregular  words  which 
seem  to  be  compounded  of  different  roots  ;  and  which 
have,  therefore,  been  supposed  to  imply  the  significa- 
tion of  both  ;  but  these,  too,  are  only  false  readings, 
and  ought  to  be  corrected. 

.Ter.  ii.  11.  **  Hath  a  nation  changed  ("I'D'nn)  their  gods,"  com- 
pounded of  '^)^D  "  to  change,"  and  "»D'  "  to  boast ;"  but 
■^onn  in  65  MSS.,  which  is  regular  from  nn. 

Ezek.  xxxvi.  11.  ^m3'Dni  "  And  I  will  do  good,"  compound- 
ed of  2)D  and  3£3* ;  but  'niDta'm  from  the  former,  in  23 
MSS. 

Zech.  X.   6.   LD*nuiJ/rm   compounded  of  TC^'  "to  sit,"  which 


SIGNIFICATION  OF  WORDS.  277 

would  give  OTiJl^'ni,  and  3liy  "  to  return,"  which  would 
give  CD'nntyni  "  I  bring  them  again  to  place  them,"  Eng. — 
but  the  former  is  regular  in  25  MSS.  "I  will  set  them." 
Glass,  ib.     Ken.  in  loc. 


SECT.  III. 


The  Signification  of  Words. 

832.  The  Scripture  being  written  in  dead  languages^ 
the  words  of  which  habit  has  not  led  us  to  associate 
with  the  things  denoted  by  them,  there  must  often  be 
difficulty  in  discovering  the  signification  of  the  several 
words  employed. 

833.  In  discovering  the  signification  of  Hebrew 
words,  there  is  peculiar  difficulty  ;  because,  that  lan- 
guage having  been  almost  wholly  lost  for  several  ages, 
and  no  book,  except  the  Bible,  being  extant  in  it,  the 
knowledge  of  it  is  but  imperfectly  recovered  by  means 
of  the  kindred  languages,  the  ancient  versions,  atten- 
tion to  etymology,  and  regard  to  the  scope  and  con- 
nexion ;  and,  by  means  of  all  these,  it  cannot,  perhaps, 
be  completely  recovered,  in  every  instance. 

834.  The  Greek  having  been  of  more  extensive 
and  constant  usage,  it  is  easier  to  discover  the  mean- 
ing of  words  in  the  New  Testament  5  but  even  this  is 
not  always  exempt  from  difficulty. 


278  SIGNIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 

835.  Difficulties  respecting  the  signification  of  single 
words,  are  reducible  to  two, — Obscurity — and  Am- 
biguity. 

836.  1.  A  word  is  obscure,  when  there  is  diffi- 
culty in  affixing  any  meaning  to  it.  Such  obscurity 
proceeds  from  different  causes,  according  to  which  the 
means  of  removing  it  are  likewise  different. 

837.  Obscurity  sometimes  arises  from  a  word  being 
rare  in  the  language,  or  at  least  in  Scripture,  especi- 
ally, when  it  occurs  only  in  places  where  there  is  little 
in  the  sense  and  connexion  that  can  indicate  its  precise 
meaning  ;  and,  in  this  case,  its  signification  must  be 
collected,  as  well  as  possible,  from  its  etymology,  or 
from  the  usage  of  it,  in  the  few  instances  in  which  it 
occurs,  or  from  kindred  languages. 

Isa.  ix.  5.  |J«D  pi^D  occur  nowhere  else ; — "  battle,"  Rabbin 
Eng.  Sym. — "  violenta  prsedatio,"  Vulg. — c-toAjjv  c7n<rvvt)y' 
/tcevjjv,  "robe  gathered  together,"  70.  The  phrase  is  used  for 
"  shoes,"  by  the  Isyriac,  in  Luke  xv.  22.  Acts  xii.  8.  It 
probably  means  "  armour  for  the  legs  and  feet ;"  this  was  to 
be  burnt  with  the  "  garments  rolled  in  blood  ;"  which  was 
a  common  custom,  Josh.  xi.  6.  Psal.  xlvi.  9.  Ezek.  xxxix.  9, 
10.  Nah.  ii.  13. 
Lowth  in  loc. 

Mat.  vi.  11.  Aprov  ifjcm  EniOYSION  ;  the  word  occurs  not  in 
the  New  Testament,  nor  70,  nor  in  almost  any  Greek  author; 
its  etymology  is  therefore  derived, — 1.  from  e^n  and  utiu, 
"  substance,  essence,  means  of  subsisting."  whence  "  super- 
'  substantialem,"  Vulg.  "  substantialem,"'  suitable  to  our  sub- 
stance, Vatabl.  Macknight.— "  of  our  necessity,"  ^yr.— 
«  aUmentarium,"  Castal.— 2  from  e^/«o-«6,  "  following,"  sub- 
auditur  ^fttp^,  « to-morrow  ;"  whence  nPD,  «  of  to-morrow," 
Heb.  Gospel.  Grot,  synecdoch.  for,  «  what    is  sufficient  for 


SIGNIFICATION  OF  WORDS.  279 

the  future  part  of  life  ;*'  this  is  not  inconsistent  with  v.  34. 
and  is  agreeable  to  Phil.  iv.  6. — «  quotidianum,'-  Ital. "  daily," 
Eng.  and  most  modern  versions. 
Mark  xiv.  3.  AAaC^c-r^ov ;    the  word  is  used  only  here,  and  in 
Mat.  xxvi.  7.  Luke  vii.  37.  "  alabaster,"  Jer    Zeger.  Grot. 
Eng.  Pliny. — or,  from   «  priv.  and  a«^-^«v&;,  «  which  could 
not  be  held  ;" — either  "  smooth,"  Erasm.  or  "without  han- 
dles," Knatchb. — a-wrpi^PccTcc,  «  brake,"  Eng. ;    this  is  the 
common   sense  of  the  word  in  the  New  Testament;  but  it 
signifies  also  "shook,"  in  Greek  writers,  and  perhaps  in 
Luke  ix.  39.  which  agrees  better  with  this  place. 
Knatchb. 
Phil.  iii.  £0.  no?itTevf/^x  occurs  nowhere  else  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, but  often  in  Greek  writers,  where  it  is  always  used 
with  a  reference  to  political   society,  particularly  to  confed- 
erated states,  living  under  the  same  laws  and  polity,  though 
in  different  places  ; — "  our  polity,"  that  to  which  we  belong, 
Palairet.     "  our  conversation,"  Eng. ;    but  this  sense  is  not 
authorized  ;  our  translators  have  been  led  to  it  by  iroXireva 
being  twice  used  for,  "to  behave."    First, 
Act.  xxiii.  1.  UeTroXirsvf^cci,  "  I  have  lived,"  Eng.  and  most  in- 
terpreters ;  but  it  may  refer  to  Paul's  behaviour  as  a  citizen; 
for  he  was  accused  as  an  enemy,  and  seditious,  ch.  xxvi.  5, 
"  I  have  lived  as  a  good  citizen  "     Again, 
Phil.  i.  27.  UoXiTeveo-h,  « let  your  conversation  be,"  Eng. ;  but 
the  apostle  had  all  along  considered  Christians  as  united  in 
one  society,  and  having  a  common  cause  and  interest.    "  Act 
suitably  to  the  Gospel,  the  bond  and  charter  of  your  union  ;" 
it  is  so  explained  by  what  follows. 
Eph.  ii   19.  'Zvf^'TroXtrui,  a  word  of  the  same  etymology;  "fel- 
low-citizens," Eng.  members  of  the  same  community. 

838.  A  word  becomes  obscure  in  a  particular  pas- 
sage, when  none  of  the  significations,  which  it  has  in 
other  passages,  there  suits  the  sense  ;  and,  in  this  case, 
another  signification,  more  suitable,  must  be  gathered 
from  other  writers,  or  from  kindred  languages. 


280  SIGNIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 

839.  A  derivative  word  becomes  obscure^  when 
the  signification,  which  it  requires  in  a  particular  pas- 
sage, is  such  as  cannot  naturally  arise  from  any  of  the 
significations,  of  its  root  or  primitive,  which  are  found 
in  the  Scripture,  or  common  in  the  language  ;  and  the 
obscurity  must  be  removed  by  learning  other  significa- 
tions of  the  root,  from  writers  in  the  language,  or 
from  kindred  languages. 

The    noun  hhr\  is  derived   from  SSn,  which,  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  signifies  "  to  be  pierced  through,  wounded,  slain ;" 
it  is  therefore  rendered  "  wounded,  slain,"  where  this  sense 
is  improper.     But,  in  Arabic,  the  root  signifies  "  to  encamp, 
protect,''  &c.  and  its  derivatives  have  significations  corres- 
ponding to  these,  "  a  brave  man,  warrior,  soldier."     Judg, 
XX.  31,  39.  "  smite  CD'S^n  the  slain,^^  Chald.  wlwch  is  absurd. 
— "the  wounded,'*   70.  little  better,  for  there  had  been  no 
battle. — the  Vulg.  makes  an  unwarrantable  supplement.— 
Eng.  "  and  kill,'*  which  is  no  version  ;    but  if  we  render  it 
"soldiers,"    all    difficulty    is   removed — Psal.  Ixxxix.    10. 
"  Thou   hast  broken  Rahab  SShd — "  as  one  wounded,"  70. 
Vulg. — "  slain,"  Eng.  both  flat  and  improper — "thou  like  a 
soldier  hast  broken,'*  &c.  which  agrees  with  the  structure,  and 
is  confirmed  by  Exoil.  xv.  3,  6. — Prov.  vii.  26.    "  Cast  down 
many  c"7Sn — having  wounded,'*  70.  Arab,  which  is  no  ver- 
sion.-—" slain,"  Chald.   ►Syr.—"  wounded,"  Vulg.  Eng. ;  but 
if  we  render  it "  warriors,"  it  gives  an  unexceptionable  sense, 
and   agreeable  to  the  structure.     Jer.  li.  4.  *'  The  slain  shall 
fall*'  (i.   e.  fall  mortally,  which  is  identical;)  but,  if  it  be 
rendered  "soldiers,"  it  gives  a  proper  sense,  and  preserves 
a  just  connexion  with  the  preceding  verse.      So  also  v.  47, 
49, — Ezek.  xi.  6,  7.      This  word  is  thrice  rendered  "  slain," 
in  Eng.  70  ;    but,  if  soldiers,'*  it  makes  good  sense,  and 
perfectly  suits  the  connexion. — ch.  xxi.  14.     "  The  sword  of 
the  slain,  of  the  great  men  that  are  slain,''^  Eng. — "  of  the 
great  slaughter,"  Chald.  Vulg. ;    it   should  be,  "  the   sword 
of  the  warriors,  of  the  great  warrior,"  i.  e.  the  king  of  Bab- 
ylon, V.  19. 


SIGNIFICATION  OF  WORDS.  281 

S  Sam.  xxiii.  8.  and  1  Chron.  xi.  11.  "  lift  up  his  spear  against 
(Sam.  800,  which  is  wrong)  300  SSn — whom  he  slew,'*  Eng. 
but  this  is  almost  incredible.  If  it  be  rendered  '<  slain  or 
wounded/'  this  would  have  been  no  act  of  bravery  ;  but,  if 
"soldiers,"  the  meaning  will  be,  that  he  cut  his  way  through* 
Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  103,  &c. 

840.  When  the  obscurity  of  a  word  arises  from  its 
implying  an  allusionto  some  particular  object,  custom, 
or  event,  it  can  be  removed  only  by  the  knowledge  of 
that  which  is  alluded  to. 

Mat.  V.  41.  xxvii.  32.  Mark  xv.  21.  Ayyxosvu,  "  compel,"  from 
the  Persic  ;  it  is  taken  from   the  law  of  forcing  to  go  on  the 
king's  service  to  a  certain  stage  or  angara. 
Drus.  Grot.  Lightfoot.  Lamy. 

841.  2.  As,  in  all  languages,  there  are  words  which 
have  several  different  significations,  it  must  often  be 
ambiguous  which  of  these  significations  ought  to  be 
aflixed  to  them  in  a  particular  passage  ;  and  for 
determining  this,  different  means  may  be  employed  in 
different  instances. 

842.  Knowledge  of  all  the  significations  of  the  word 
must  be  presupposed ;  for  a  word  is  not  always  used 
in  its  most  common  sense  ;  and,  that  knowledge  can 
be  obtained  only  by  an  extensive  acquaintance  with 
the  language,  and  the  writers  in  it,  and  sometimes,  also, 
with  kindred  languages. 

Luke  xii  29.  Mjj  f^srec^pt^eTh,  "be  not  lifted  upon  high,"  Vulg. 
Erasm.  Zeger.  This  is  its  most  common  sense,  agreeably 
to  its  etymology ;  but,  in  this  sense,  it  is  difficult  to  con- 
nect it  with  the  context.  "Be  not  of  doubtful  mind,"  or, 
"  in  careful  suspense,"  Eng.     High  things  appear  "  suspend- 

36 


282  SIGNIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 

cd;'*  bj  a  further  metaphor,  the  vford  signifies  "to  vibrate 
or  fluctuate;"  and  hence  "to  be  anxious  or  in  suspense." 
This  sense  the  word  has  in  Greek  writers ;  and  this  suits 
the  connexion,  and  is  synonymous  with  f-cepifJLv^a-ijTe,  Mat. 
vi.  31. 

Grot.     Vatabl.     Castal.     Knatchb. 

Mat.  vi.  2,  5,  16.  ATrtx^^'  ^«v  /^ig-Scv.  The  word  has  the  same 
sense  in  all  these  places.  "  They  have  their  reward."  Eng. 
Vail.  Vatab.  Castal.  Grot.  This  is  the  sense  of  the  word 
most  frequent  in  the  New  Testament ;  but  it  is  frij^id,  harsh, 
and  suits  not  V.  1.  "ye  have  no  reward"  *' 'I'hey  hinder 
their  reward  ;"  the  word  is  often  used  in  this  sense  in  the 
Greek  writers.  Dionys.  Hal.  Flutarc.  in  70.  Eccl.  ii.  10. 
Prov.  iii.  27.  xxiii.  13.  Joel.  i.  13.  This  is  analogous  to  ctTrs- 
X,of^cci,  "  to  abstain,"  which  is  the  sense  it  always  has  in  the 
New  Testament ;  and  it  is  suitable  to  its  etymology  and  to 
the  connexion. 
Knatchb. 

Luke  xi.  24.     ATrepcsis  Trx^uaXus-iv ;  it  is  commonly  rendered, 
*'  ye  have  received  (using  the  prseterite  for  the  present)  your 
consolation."  Eng.  Vatab.  Grot. — rather,  "  ye  hinder,^^ 
Knatchb. 

Mat.  xi.  12.     "  From  the  days  of  John  the  Baptist,  until  now, 

the  kingdom  of  heaven  jitu-^^ereti^  x.xi  ^lucrrxi  a^7ra.^ii(riv    ecVTijv, 

sutfereth  violence,  and  the  violent  take  it  by  force,"  Eng. 
— fcome,  *  The  Jews  rush  into  it  so  eagerly,  as  if  they  would 
seize  it  by  force,'  Munst.  Erasm.  Vatab.  Camer.  Grot. 
Lightf. ;  but  this  is  scarcely  true,  for  it  met  with  great  oppo- 
sition from  the  Jews. — Others  *  The  Gentiles  seize  it,'  not 
by  descent  or  inheritance,  but  extort  it  from  the  Jews  as  by 
conquest ;  Hilar.  Ambr.  Maldonat.  Zeger.  but  the  Gentiles 
were  not  called  during  Christ's  life.— (;thers,  *  is  outraged,' 
violently  opposed  by  the  Jews,  *  and  these  violent  opposers 
endeavour  to  storm,'  or  make  a  prey  of  it,  Harwood.  This 
is  agreeable  to  the  meaning  of  the  words,  and  of  some  of  the 
Hebrew  words,  which  tlie  70.  translate  by  (iiul^a  ;  it  was  the 
real  fact,  and  it  suits  the  connexion  and  argument.  So, 


SIGNIFICATION  OF  WORDS.  288 

Luke  xvi.  16.  ri^s  etg  uvrav  (iioi^erxi,  "  every  man  presseth  into 
it,*'  Eng.  most  interpreters  ;  but  "  outrages  against  it,"  vio- 
lently attacks  and  opposes    it.  lid. 

843.  The  same  word  is  used  both  as  a  proper  name, 
and  as  an  appellative  ;  and,  it  may  be  uncertain  whe- 
ther, in  a  particular  passage,  it  is  to  be  taken  as  the 
one  or  the  other. 

Gen.  ii  8.  pr,  "pleasure,"  Vulg.— "  Eden,"  70.  (though 
otherwise  v.  15.)  Eng.  which  is  right;  it  is  a  name  else- 
where used,  and  is  derived  from  the  former. 

Ch  iv.  16.  1)2,  «  A  fugitive,"  Vulg.— "  Nod,"  70.  Eng.  so 
called  from  Cain's  state  ;  perhaps  "  Arabia  desert." 
Well's  Geogr.  V.  1.  c.  1.  §  39. 

Ch.  xii.  6.  Deut   xi.  SO.  nin  pSx,  "  the  plain  Moreh,"  Eng.— • 
"the  high  oak,"  70.  there  was  such  in  Moreh,  Gen.  xxxv.  4. 
Josh.  xxiv.  25.  26.  Judg.  ix.  6. 
Wells,  ib.  c.  7.  §  4. 

Isa.  V.  2.  pTit',  "Sorek,"  70.  Theod.—"  chosen,"  Sjm.  Vulg  — 
"  with  the  choicest  vines,"  Eng. 

Ch.  XV.  9.  nii3DlJ,  "  additions,  more,"  Vulg.  Eng. — "  the  Arabi- 
ans," 70.  n-iN,  "a  lion,"  Vulg.  Eng.— "and  Ariel,"  70.  nonx, 
"the  land."  Vulg.  Eng.—"  Adama,"  70. 

Ezek.  xxxviii.  2.  iyx"i  ii'li^:,  "  the  prince  of  the  head,  or  chief," 
Vulg. — "  chief  prince,"  Eng.  "  of  Ros,"  70.  to  intimate  that 
the  Ros,  or  Russians,  were  a  colony  of  Meshech  or  Tubal. 
Wells,  ib.  c.  3.  s.  2.    §41. 

844.  General  terms  are  used^  sometimes,  in  their 
whole  extent,  sometimes,  in  a  restricted  sense,  to  de- 
note only  some  of  the  particulars  included  under 
them  ;  and  whether,  in  any  text,  they  are  to  be  taken 
in  the  one  way  or  the  other,  may  be  determined  by  the 
sense  as  appearing  from  the  scope,  the  words  by 
which  they  are  explained,  or  those  to  which  they  are 
opposed. 


284  SIGNIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 

p'lV,  SiKUioq,  signify  in  general,  "  virtuous,  a  person  of  univer- 
sal rectitude."  They  are  determined  to  this  sense — By 
words  txplaining  them.  Gen.  vi.  9.  "  Nodh  was  jMsf,"  for 
it  follows, "  perfect,  and  walked  with  God."  Psal.  xxxii.  11. 
"Ye  righteous,"  explained  by,  "upright  in  heart."  Psal. 
xxxiii.  1.  Ixiv.  10.  xcvii.  11.  cxl.  13.  Prov.  ix.  9.  Ch. 
xxiii.  24.  Mat.  v.  45.  "just  and  unjust,"  explained  by 
,  "  good  and  evil."  Luke  i.  6.  "  both  righteous,"  for  it  fol- 
lows,"  walking  in  all  commandments  and  ordinances,  blame- 
less." Acts  x.  22.  "  Cornelius  just,"  "  feared  God,  was  of 
good  report " — By  what  is  affirmed  concerning  them.  Job 
XXX vi.  7.  "  God  v/ithdraweth  not  bis  eyes  from  the  right- 
eouSy^  "  doth  establish  them,  they  are  exalted."  Psal.  v.  12. 
"wilt  bless  the  righteoiisP  Psal.  Iviii.  11.  "a  reward  for 
i\\Q  righteous.'^^  ^5at.  xiii.  43.  "the  righteous  shall  shine 
forth  ;"  these  blessings  belong  not  to  a  single  virtue.  Luke 
xiv.  14.  "  the  resurrection  of  the  jM.sfl"  Ch.  xviii.  9.  "trusted 
in  themselves  that  they  were  righteous.'' — Bybein^*  opposed 
to  terms  expressive  of  wickedness  in  general.  Job  xxii.  18, 
19.  "  counsel  of  the  wicked,  the  righteous  see."  Ch.  xxvii. 
13 — 17-  "the  portion  of  a  wicked  man,  the  just  shall  put  it 
on."  Psal.  i.  5,  6.  "  ungodly  nor  sinners,  the  righteous." 
Prov.  X.  3.  "  the  soul  of  the  righteous,  the  substance  of  the 
wicked."     Mat.  xiii    49.   7ro»'>j/>oy§,  ^iKxtuv.      Ch.  xxiii.  28. 

hy.ei.ioi,  f4,£erToi  vTTOKptTee^i    kxi    uvofA.ia,q,       Luke    i.    17.    etfrnhq, 
^piVijo-si  hxettm.      1  Pet.  iv.  18.  hKXiog,   cttrel^iji  yccti    ufJLoc^raXoi, 

In  this  general  sense,  the  words  are  applied  to  laws,  or  to  con- 
duct. "  Righteous  judgments,"  &c  a  very  common  expres- 
sion. J^uke  xii.  57.  "  Why  jud»*e  ye  not  what  is  (hx.xi9v) 
right."  Acts  iv.  19-  "whether  it  be  (^Kuiev)  ri^ht,"  &c. 
Ry  an  intension  of  this  sense,  they  denote  "  eminently  vir- 
tuous." Mark  vi.  20.  of  John. — and  "  perfectly  virtuous." 
Rom.  iii.  10.  "none  righteous."  Christ  o  ^/xa/es,  Acts  iii. 
14.  vii.  52.  xxii.  14.  1  Pet.  iii.  18,  1  John  ii.  1.  But  the 
words  are  often  taken  in  more  restricted  significations,  indi- 
cated by  the  same  means ;  and  tiiese  are  various.  1.  Inno- 
cence, or  guiltlessness,  in  respect  of  any  particular  vice.  Gen. 
XX.  4.  '"a  righteous   nation,"  guiltless  in  respect  of  Sarah* 


SIGNIFICATION  OF  WORDS.  285 

David  often  of  himself,  as  to  the  crimes  imputed  to  him.  2. 
Duty  to  wen,     Luke   ii.   25.     "  Simeon  just  and  devout." 

3.  «  Strict  justice."  Exod.  ix.  27.  "  The  Lord  righteous," 
in  the  judgment  of  hail.  Ch.  xxiii.  8.  "gift  perverteth," 
&c.  2  Chron.  xii.  6.  "The  Lord  righteous,"  in  punishing. 
Tit.  i.  8.  "just,"  enumerated  among  many  other  virtues.  This 
sense  is  frequent,  and  applied  to  laws  or  conduct.     Mat.  xx. 

4,  7.  "  what  is  ri^ht  I  will  give  "  John  v.  30.  "my  judg- 
ment just."  4  Kind,  benign,  beneficent,  merciful.  Ezra 
ix.  15.  **Lord  righteous,"  for  we  remain,  &c.  Psal.  cxii. 
4.  "  righteous,"  synonymous  with  "gracious,"  &c  and  ex- 
plained by  "  showeth  favour,"  &c.  v.  6.  it  has  the  same 
sense  Fsal.  cxvi.  5.  "righteous"  synonymous  with  "gra- 
cious, merciful."  Prov.  xii.  10  "  righteous  regardeth  beast," 
and  opposed  to  "  cruelty."  Mat.  i.  19.  "Joseph  just,"  for 
"not  willing,"  &c.  Grot.  Knatchb.  Rom.  iii.  26.  "jMsf  and 
the  justifier,"  &c.  !?ome,  'Christ  rendered  it  consistent  with 
justice  to  justify;'  some,  'just  in  keeping  his  promise,' 
Locke;  but  simpler,  "merciful,"  as  v.  24  "justified  by 
grace,"  Taylor.  1  John  i.  9.  "just  to  forgive."  The  words 
should  be  rendered  uniformly,  when  the  same  sense  is  clear, 
and  differently  from  the  others.  The  meaning  remains 
somewhat  doubtful,  when  diff*erent  principles  favour  differ- 
ent senses,  or,  when  there  is  no  certain  principle.  Rom.  v. 
7.  "  for  a  righteous  man,"  *  virtuous,'  for  it  is  opposed  to 
"ungodly,'*  v  6.  and  to  "  sinners,"  v.  8, — or,  *  strictly  just,' 
for  it  is  immediately  opposed  to  "good  ;"  this  last  is  pref- 
erable. Prov.  xxix.  7."  The  righteous  considereth  the  cause 
of  the  poor,"  *  virtuous,*  for  it  is  opposed  to  "  wicked  ;"  or, 
'merciful,*  if  respecting  common  life  ;  or,  'just,'  if  relating 
to  judicial  proceedings.  Mat.  ix.  13.  Mark  ii.  17.  Luke  v. 
32.  *'not  to  call  the  righteous  ;^*  it  is  commonly  understood 
of'  self-righteous  ;*  but  in  this  sense,  the  word  is  never  used, 
nor  could  it  be  opposed  to  "  sinners;"  it  means  *  trulv  or 
eminently  virtuous,'  opposed  to  "  gross  sinners  ;'  he  speaks 
comparatively,  [157.1  and  of  a  total  change  of  lifp. 


286  SIGNIFICATION  OP  WORDS. 

845.  Many  words,  being  common  and  indefinite^ 
equally  applicable  to  many  different  subjects  or  events, 
they  ought  not  to  be  explained  in  the  same  way  in  all 
the  places  where  they  occur,  but  varied  and  restrict- 
ed, according  to  the  sense,  the  connexion,  or  parallel 
texts. 

"  The  coming  of  Christ,"  is  used  in  very  different  senses,  which 
it  is  of  importance  to  distinguish. — '  His  birth,  or  coming  in 
the  body,'  John  xvi.  28.  "  came  from  the   Father,  into  the 
world."     1  John  iv.  2,  3.     2  John   7,—'  Executing  his  un- 
dertaking,' John  xviii.  37.  "  came  into  the  world,"  distin- 
guished from  *>was  born."     Mat.  xviii.  11.  xx.  28.     Mark 
X.  45.     Luke  xvii.  20.  xix.   10.    John  i.  9,  11.  iii.  2.  iv.  25. 
vii.  27,  28,  31,  41,  42.  x.  10.     Eph.   ii.  17.     I  Tim.  i.  15  — 
Hence,  particularly,  *his  entering   on  his   ministry.'      So, 
"  came  after  John,"  Mat.  iii.  11.      Mark  i.  7.     Luke  iii.  16. 
John  i.  15,  27,  30.     Also,  Mat.  xi.  19.     "  Son  of  man  crtme," 
&c.  John  V.  43.   "come  in  my  Father's  name."     Ch.  ix.  39. 
"  For  judgment  am  I  come." — *  Any  great,  though  invisible 
interposition,'  Rev.  ii.  5.  •'  come  and  remove  candlestick." 
v.   l6.  "  come  and  fight."      Ch.  iii.  3.  *'  come  quickly." — 
Specially,  *  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  spirit,'  John  xiv.  18,  28. 
"  come  unto  you." — And  *  the  propagation  of  his  religion,' 
Mat  xvi.  28.  "coming  in  his  kingdom,"  for  Mark  ix.   1. 
"  kingdom  come  with  power."     *  The  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem,' Mat.  xxvi.  64.  coming  in  the  clouds,"  &c.  prophetic 
style,  for  judgment — Visible  appearance  for  general  judg- 
ment,' Mat.  xvi.  27.  "  shall  come  in  glory,"  for  it  is  added, 
**  reward  every  man,"  &c.  this  sense   is  frequent.      It  is 
sometimes   difficult  to   determine    between    these    senses. 
Mat.  X.  23.  *'  till  the  Son  of  Man  be  come." — *  till  his  resur- 
rection,'  Munster.  Lightf. ;    but  the  phrase  never  Jias  this 
sense. — *TiIl  lie  followed  them  preaching.'  Vatab — 'Till  he 
come  to  destroy  Jerusalem,'  Zeger.  Knatchb. — *  Till  giving 
oftlieHoly  Ghost,'   Grot. — *  Till  the  gospel  be  received,* 
Macknight.     It  is  doubtful  in  what  sense  it  should  be  taken 
in  this  place. 


SIGNIFICATION  OF  WORDS.  287 

846.  As  the  same  word  is,  sometimes,  taken  in  a 
good,  a  bad,  or  indifferent  meaning,  it  is  by  the  sense 
and  connexion  that  it  must  be  determined,  in  which 
of  these  ways  it  should  be  understood,  in  a  particular 
text. 

Acts  xvii.  22.  AsiertScctf^ovs>mpovq,  "  too  superstitious."  Eng- 
Erasm.  and  alii. — But,  "  more  religious  ;■'  this  is  a  common 
sense  of  the  word  :  the  Athenians  were  fond  of  this  charac- 
ter ;  it  suits  the  apostle's  design,  and  gives  occasion  for  his 
doctrine  ;  he  shows  great  address,  commends  where  he  can, 
yet  softly  hints  a  rebuke.  Grot.  Benson.  Lardner. — Acts 
XXV.  19.  "of  their  own  [SsiTi^y^tfAovixi)  superstition,"  Eng. — 
"  Religion :"  this  sense  suits  the  connexion  :  the  word  is 
used  by  Josephus  in  speaking  of  the  Jewish  religion  ;  it  is 
here  used  of  Agrippa's  religion,  and  Festus  was  desirous  of 
showing  him  respect.     Benson. 

847.  The  same  word  may  be  used,  either  in  its  pro- 
per and  literal,  or  in  a  figurative  and  translatitious 
sense ;  in  most  cases,  it  is  not  difficult  to  determine, 
particularly  by  the  nature  of  the  thing,  or  by  the  con- 
nexion, in  which  way  it  should  be  understood  ;  but,  in 
some  cases,  it  is  doubtful ;  and  yet,  the  determination 
will  considerably  affect  the  sense. 

There  are  many  texts  which  ascribe  bodily  parts  to  God  ;  but, 
the  nature  of  the  thing,  and  other  texts,  show  that  the  terms 
are  used  metaphorically. 

Gen.  iii.  1,  &c.  "  Serpent,"  is  generally  understood  literally; 
others,  however,  think,  that  it  should  be  taken  wholly  met- 
taphorically.     Chandler's   Sermons.     Gerard,  vol.  1.  serm. 

4,5. 

"  Holy  Ghost,"  often  signifies  *  the  divine  Spirit,'  John  xiv. 
16,  26.  XV.  26.  xvi.  23.  Mat.  xxviii.  19.  2  Cor.  xiii.  4  — 
often,  *  his  operation,  or  the  eft'ect  of  it;'    Acts  ii.  4,  33.  viii. 


288  SIGMIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 

15 — 19.  X.  44 — Acts  xix.  1,  2.  "  We  have  not  heard  wheth- 
er there  be  any  Holy  Ghost,"  any  giving  of  miraculous  pow- 
ers, V.  6. 

848.  In  the  New  Testament,  a  word's  being  under- 
stood according  to  the  usage  of  Greek,  or  that  of  Hel- 
lenistical,  writers,  will  considerably  affect  the  sense ; 
and  the  determination  may  be  attended  with  some  am- 
biguity ;  which,  however,  may  generally  be  removed, 
at  least  with  sufficient  probability.  [161.  162.  164. 
165.] 

849.  Many  words  have  several  distinct  significations, 
not  reducible  to  any  of  these  heads,  one  of  which  they 
bear  in  some  texts,  and  another  in  others  ;  and,  which 
of  them  they  bear  in  each,  must  be  ascertained  by  the 
connexion,  the  construction,  the  usage  of  Scripture, 
and  similar  passages. 

Ilccn  primarily  signifies  *a  child,'  absolutely.  Mat.  ii.  16. 
ec¥£{Xe  rs5  TTuiSeti,  "the  children.''  Luke  ii.  43.  Ijjc-«5  o  ttuh, 
"  the  child  Jesus."  Mat.  xvii  18.  Luke  viii.  51,  54.  ix. 
42. — by  the  extension  beyond  the  age  of  childhood,  *  a  young 
person.'  Acts  xx.  12.  ttuiSu,  of  Eutychus,  for  vf«»/«5,  v.  9  — 
or  even  perhaps,  'persons  of  any  age,' Mat.  xxi.  15.  ravg 
TTccti'ccq,  the  disciples. — Relatively  to  a  master,  a  *  servant.' 
Mat.  xiv.  2.  Herod  said  roig  Trxtctv  uvtov  *'  to  his  servants." 
Luke  vii.  7.  o  ttxi^  f<,ov,  "  my  servant,"  for  SovXe^  v.  2,  8,  10. 
Luke  xii.  45.  xv.  26.  So,  probably,  Luke  i.  54.  of  Israel^ 
where  there  is  an  allusion  to  Isa.  xli.  8,  9,  and  Acts  iv.  25. 
The  word  is  also  supposed  to  signify,  relatively  to  parent, 
*  a  son.'  John  iv.  51.  e  ttxh  tov  ^>i,  "  thy  son  liveth ;"  but 
y*05  is  found  in  many  MSS.— It  is  used  relatively,  or  with  a 
a  genitive,  five  times  concerning  Christ.  Mat.  xii.  18.  iSov  o 
TTxi^  ftov,  "  behold  my  servant,"  Eng  which  is  right;  for  it  is 
a  quotation  from  Isa.  xlii.  1.  where  the  word  is  12]^  Acts 
iii.  13.  t^o^occre  TO*  Trxt^oi  uvTov,  "SOU,"  Eng.    Grot.      The 


SIGNIFICATIONS  OF  WORDS.  289 

apostle  is  supposed  to  allude  to  the  testimony  at  his  baptism ; 
but,  there  seems  no  reason  for  the  supposition ;  the  allusion 
is  rather  to  his  resurrection  and  giving  miraculous  powers, 
V.  15,  16. ;  it  may,  therefore,  mean  "servant.**  v.  26.  «»«o-rj}- 
e-xi  Tov  TxiSat  etvrov,  "  his  son,'"  Eng.  but  rather  "servant:" 
it  alludes  to  Moses,  who  is  often  called  "servant,"  never 
"son.''  Acts  iv.  27.  ctti  tov  uyiov  TTxi^x  a-ov,  "  thy  holy 
child  ;"  Eng.  called  "  Son,"  Psal.  ii.  part  of  which  is  quoted, 
V.  25,  26. ;  but  it  is  used  of  David  in  the  sense  of  "  servant,'* 
V.  25.  and  here,  in  the  same  sense,  in  allusion  to  him  as  a 
type  of  Christ.  v.  30.  3iot  rov  ovof^xroi  rov  uytov  ttuiSo^, 
"  child,"  Eng  but  from  the  connexion,  v.  27.  it  should  be 
"  servant."  "  Son"  suits  Christ's  dignity.  Vail.  Erasm. 
But,  I.  "Servant '  is  not  derogatory  to  him  ;  he  is  often  so 
called.  2.  This  is  the  constant  signification  of  the  word  in 
the  New  Testament,  when  used  relatively.  3.  In  every 
•  other  place,  w/ej  is  used  of  Christ  as  sfon.  These  reasons 
preponderate. 
Mat.  vi.  27.  r.>^(Kiec  "stature."  "  Which  of  you  can  add  one 
cubit  to  his  stature  ^''^  Eng.  cubit  belongs  to  space.  But 
rXiKix  equally  signifies  *  age;^  it  is  so  rendered  John  ix.  21, 
23.  Heb.  xi.  1.  Measures  of  space  are  often  applied  to  time ; 
"a  span,"  or  handbreadth,  Psal.  xxxix.  5.;  so  may  5r>j;cy$, 
*  cubit ;'  and  this  sense  suits  the  connexion,  v.  25.  forbids 
anxiety  for  life ;  to  speak  here  of  prolonging  it,  is,  there- 
fore, suitable  ;  but  adding  to  one's  stature  is  not ;  and  adult 
persons  could  not  think  of  it;  a  cubit  would  not  be  "least," 
Luke  xii.  26.  where  it  is  preceded  by  the  parable  of  the  rich 
man.  "  Who  can  add  length  to  his  age  ?"  or,  "  prolong  his 
life  one  hour  ?"  "^ 

Heylin.  Theol.  Lect.     Campb.  in  loc. 

850.  Different  significations  of  the  same  word  are 
sometimes  very  remote,  and,  in  appearance,  totally 
unconnected;  but,  the  most  remote  are  generally  unit- 
ed, by  means  of  the  several  intermediate  significations  ; 
and  by,  tracing  these,  a  word  may  be  properly  inter- 
37 


290  NOUiNS. 

preted  in  texts,  where  its  primary  signification,  or  any 
of  its  most  common  significations ,  would  be  totally 
unsuitable. 

Psal  xlix.  4.  h^Dh  "  to  a  parable,^^  "HTn  "  a  dark  saying ;" 
neither,  however,  applicable  to  the  subject.  Parables  were 
originally  used  for  familiar  illusti  ation  ;  afterwards,  for  con- 
cealing the  meaning  ;  and  thus  proceeded  to  enigma  or  riddle. 
The  interpietation  of  such  was  reckoned  great  wisdom, 
Judg.  xiv.  12,  &c.  Prov.  i.  5,  6.  Hence  *  wise  sayings' 
came  to  signify  any  important  instruction.  Such  is  here 
given,  and  called  "  wisdom,  understanding."  v.  3. 

851.  Similar  words  have  sometimes  totally  different 
significations,  which  may  very  readily  be,  and  often 
are,  confounded  ;  but  must  be  carefully  distinj^uished, 
else  the  sense  will  be  perverted,  or  obscured.  • 


SECT.  lY. 


The  Usage  of  Nouns, 

852.  The  peculiar  usage  of  nouns  regards  their 
several  accidents,  gender,  case,  number  ;  or  their  va- 
rieties^ as  substantives  or  adjectives,  abstract  or  con- 
crete ;  and  the  difficulties  attending  it  arise  from  ir- 
regularities in  relation  to  any  of  these. 

Macknight  on  Epistles,  Essay  4. 

853.  The  Hebrew  language  having  no  neuter  gen- 
der, either  in  nouns  or  pronouns,  sometimes  the  mas- 
culine, but  generally  the  feminine,  is  used  in  place  of 


NOUNS.  291 

it;  and  this  usage  being  sometimes  adopted  in  the 
Greek  of  the  New  Testament,  it  is  to  be  decided  by 
the  sense,  and  is  generally  to  be  admitted,  when  there 
is  not  a  concord  with  an  antecedent  of  the  same 
gender. 

Glass.  1.3.  t.l,  c.  19. 

Gen.  i.  31.  li.  18.  Ps^al.  cxix.  65.  3lD  masc  for  neut.  "good." 
Gen.  1.  .0.  r\2yj  fein.  for  "good."  neut.  n;?i  fern,  for  "  evil," 
neut  Isa.  v.  20.  Eccl.  ix.  9.  Job.  v.  9.  Gen.  xv.  6.  and 
often  elsewhere.  Psal.  cxviii.  23.  X'n  fern.  Mat.  xxi.  42. 
Mark  xii.  11.  eivri),  not  referring  to  pK,  "  stone,"  HJiJ,  y&'v/as, 
"corner,"  or  ke^xXd,  "head,"  (Orig.  Chrysost.  Theophyl. 
Erasm.)  but  to  the  whole  sentence.  Bez.  Casaub.  John  xvii. 
S.  ivTT}  for  ruTo,  "this  is  life  eternal,"  viz.  "  to  know  thee," 
&c. 

854.  The  writers  of  the  New  Testament  sometimes 
use  the  neuter  for  expressing  a  person  ;  but  this  ought 
not  to  be  supposed,  except  when  the  sense^  or  some 
other  clear  principle,  requires  it. 

Mat.  i.  20.  T«  yevvTihv  Luke  i.  35.  yiwa/xivov,  "  that  which  is 
born,"  viz.  "Jesus."'  Mat.  xii.  41,42.  ttMiov,  *  a  greater 
person,"  Christ.  Ch.  xviii.  11.  «5roA&>>.o?,  "that  which  was 
(those  which  were)  lost."  John  iii.  6.  vi.  39.  1  Cor.  i.  27, 
28.  Heb.  vii.  7.  1  John  v.  4.  1  John  i.  1,  3.  'O  r,v,  "that 
which,"  the  A«yo$,  parallel  to  John  i.  1,  14. 

855.  x\s  a  word  has  sometimes  the  very  same  form 
in  different  genders,  it  leaves  an  ambiguity  in  which 
gender  it  ought  to  be  taken,  and  that  considerably  af- 
fecting the  sense  :  but  it  may  generally  be  determined 
by  the  connexion,  parallel  texts,  or  other  means, 
though  not  always  with  absolute  certainty- 
Luke  vi.  S3,  "  Lend  MHAEN  arsXTri^ovTei/^  neut.  "  hoping  for 


292  NOUNS. 

nothing  again,"  Eng.  Bez.  W')lf.  Casaub.  Grot.  Hachspan. 
opposed  to  "  vSinners  hoping  for  as  much,"  v.  34.  But  if  so, 
the  manner  of  expression  would  have  been  retained,  and 
ctTrsX-Tri^a  never  means  "  to  hope  again, '  but  "  to  despair;" 
therefore,  taking  fjLrJsv  adverbially,  "  not  at  all  despairing,** 
Mackniiiht.  Campb.  But  ftjjJ'ev  may  be  masc.  "causing  no 
man  to  despair,*  (the  verb  having  the  force  of  Hiphil,  as  70, 
Isa.  xxix.  19.  and  Ecclus.  xxvii.  21.)  Syr.  Arab.  Pets.  This 
sense  suits  Mat.  v.  42.  and  seems  preferable.  Jun.  De  Dieu. 
Fessel.  Hamm.  Knatchb.  Cleric. 
1  Cor.  ii.  6.  "  We  speak  wisdom  tv  roig  reXeioi^,  (masc.)  among 
them  that  are  perfect."  Eng,  •  Christians'  in  general,  Vatab. 
Casaub.  Grot,  and  others — or  *  initiated,  far  advanced,'  and 
**  v/isdom"  means  sublimer  points.  Macknight.  But  there 
is  no  open  and  secret  doctrine  in  Christianity ;  the  whole 
gospel  is  here  evidently  meant. — Or  neut.  "  concerning  per- 
fect things,"  Arab,  which  supposes  not  the  (  orinthians  to  be 
perfect,  and  suits  the  connexion  ;  for  the  apostle  all  along 
speaks  of  things  taught,  not  persons  to  whom  he  spoke,  v.  7, 
9,  10,  13.  This  last  is  the  simplest,  and  the  preferable  ex- 
plication.   Knatchb. 

856.  The  Hebrew  nouns  having  no  cases  by  flexion, 
its  usage,  in  relation  to  them,  resolves  itself  into  that 
of  prepositions  ;  and,  in  the  New  Testament,  the  cases 
are  employed  in  the  same  manner  as  by  Greek  writers, 
even  when  they  seem  to  be  used  promiscuously,  as  the 
nominative  for  the  vocative. 

Glass,  ib.  c  29. 

Mat.  i    20.  xxvii.  59.     Mark  x.  47.     Luke  viii.  54.  xii.  32. 
xviii.  15.     Rom.  viii.  15,     Gal.  iv.  6.     Eph.  vi.  1. 

857.  When  the  cases  of  nouns  are  not  distinguished 
by  their  form  ;  the  sense,  the  usage  of  Scripture,  or  of 
the  language,  must  determine  in  which  of  them  it 
should  be  taken. 


NOUNS.  293 

Acts  vii.  59.    Kw^/e  I»jo-»,  not  "  Lord  of  Jesus,"  Fran.  David, 
but  "  i.ord  Jesus,**  and  always  so  elsewhere. 
Glass,  ib.  c.  4. 

858.  The  numbers  of  nouns  are  not  used  always 
with  perfect  regularity;  either  in  the  New  Testament; 
or  in  the  Old. 

859.  A  singular  noun  does  not  always  signify  an  in- 
dividual, but  sometimes  a  multitude  of  related  indivi- 
duals, or  even  a  species. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  ^^2- 

Gen.  ill.   8.    «•  Hid  themselves  amongst  {]y  literally,  '  tree') 

the  trees." 
Ch.  xlix.  6.  "  Slew  B?'K  a  man,  houghed  "W^y  an  ox" — "  men, 

oxen."     Ch.  xxxiv.  25,  &c. 
Exod.  xxiii.  28.      "  I  will  send  {r\y^)in  *the  hornet')  hornets 

before  thee.** 
Lev.  xi  2.     Num.  xxi.  7.  xxsi.  35.     Deut.  xx.  19.     2  Sam.  xix. 

21.     Psal.  xxxiv.  7.     Prov.  xvii.  22.  xxx.  17,  18.     Isa.  xv.  9. 

Hos.  V.  6.    Jon.  ii.  4. 
Rev.  xxi.  21.    ^  TrXctreia.  (the  street)  "  the  streets,"  v.  16. 

860.  In  the  New  Testament,  the  dual  number  is 
never  used  ;  in  the  Hebrew,  it  is  distinguished  from  the 
plural  only  by  the  vowel  points  ;  but,  if  the  authority 
of  these  be  admitted,  it  is  often  used  irregularly,  there 
being  singulars  with  a  dual  termination,^  and  duals 
with  plural  significations,^  particularly  in  numerals.^ 

Glass,  ib.  c.  23.     Schult.  Grain.  Heb.  reg.  71. 

*  tD\^>  water  Qp^,  heaven.     Qnill^*  mid -day. 

^  Lev.  xi.  23.  Q^'^J'^  "  feet,"  dual,  joined  with  «  four." 

1  Sam.  ii.  is.  tD^y^T]  "teeth,"  dual, joined  with  "three." 
Ezek.  i.  6.  CgJJ  "wings,"  dual,  with  "four."  Zech.  iii. 
9.  tD^y^  "  eyes,'^'*  dual  with  "  seven." 


294  NOUNS. 

^  2  Sam.  xii.  6.  D»ri)?5*1X  "fourfold.**  Prov.  vi.  31. 
tD^nj^Dty  **  seveafold  ' — not  "twice  four,  twice  seven." 
Pagn. 

861.  Plural  nouns  are  sometimes  intended  to  signify, 
not  many,  but  one  among  many ;  in  which  usage,  some 
suppose  an  ellipsis  of  the  numeral  for  one. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  £7.     Macknight,  Ess.  4. 

Gen.  viii.  4.  "  Rested  on  *"in  the  mountains,"  &c.  on  one  of 
them.  Ch.  xix.  29.  "  The  cities  in  which  (one  of  which) 
Lot  dwelt."  Judg.  xii.  7-  "was  buried  in  (one  of )  the 
cities  of  Gilead."  Neh.  iii.  8.  vi.  2.  Zech  ix.  9.  Mat. 
xxiv.  1.  •'  fA.»6tircti  "  his  disciples*' — h^  one  of  them,  Mark 
xiii.  1.  Ch.  xxvi.  8.  *' his  disciples,'  one,  Judas,  John  xii. 
4.  Ch.  xxvii.  44.  o<  Xt^a-Tcti,  "  the  thieves  f  not  both  at  first, 
Jerom. — but  "one  of  them,"  Luke  xxiii.  39.  Luke  xxiii. 
36.  "  The  soldiers."  John  xix.  29-  "  they" — but  "  one  of 
them,"  Mat.  xxvii.  48.  Mark  i.  2.  John  vi.  45.  Acts  xiii. 
40.  "  The  prophets."  some,  or  one  of  them.  Mat.  xxvi.  35. 
Mark  v.  30.  (see  v.  27)  John  xiii.  4.  If^xnu,  "  garments" 
— one  of  them,  the  upper. 

862.  Plural  nouns  are  sometimes  used  in  place  of, 
or  promiscuously  with,  their  singulars,  even  when  no 
peculiar  emphasis  is  intended  ;  though,  in  some  cases, 
the  usage  is,  perhaps,  designed  to  give  emphasis,  or  to 
express  dignity,  particularly  in  names  of  authority, 
dominion,  or  office. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  24,  25,  26.     Macknight,  ib. 

Gen.  xix.  1 1   "  They  smote  the  men  ani3D3  with  blindnesses;" 

simply,   *  blindness,'   or,  *  total  blindness,'  or,   *  each   with 

blindness.'     So  2  Kings  vi.  18. 
Psal.  xiii.  5,    11.     xliii.  5.  nu^l^*^  "the   healths"— *  health  of 

every  kind  ;'  rather,  simply  *  liealth.' 
Prov.  i.  20.  niD3n  "wisdoms" — *  the  excellent  wisdom,'  ©r 


NOUN'S.  295 

simplj  *  wisdom  ;*  the  word  is  singular  in  other  texts.  So 
ch.  ix.  1.  Eccl.  V.  7.  Isa.  Iviii.  2.  Lam.  iii  22.  Ezek. 
xxviii   10.     Nah.  ii.  6. 

Mat.  viii.  11.  Luke  xiii.  29.  etvxroXoit  xeii  SvTfA.01,1^  "east  and 
west."  So  Mat.  ii.  1.  xxiv.  27.  Rev.  xvi.  12.  and  else- 
where; no  subtlety  is  meant. 

Mark  xii.  25.  apct^oKi ;  but  Mat.  xxii.  SO.  ov^xva-,  they  are  used 
promiscuously,  without  any  emphasis  being  intended  by  the 
former  ;  therefore,  the  power  given  to  Peter,  Mat.  xvi  19. 
£»  roiti  apxvoii,  and  to  the  apostles,  ch  xviii.  18.  ev  t6u  apxfoj,  is 
the  same;  not,  to  him  in  all  the  heavens,  to  them  only  in 
one,  according  to  Origen  and  the  Popish  writers,  ho  in 
other  texts.  Mat.  xxvi.  64.  and  often  elsewhere,  Se^ix  plu- 
ral, for  "the  right  hand;"  perhaps  f^epv  is  to  be  supplied ; 
in  other  texts  it  is  singular,  as  Heb.  viii.  1.  xii  2. 

Mat.  xii.  1.  roig  crx^QotTi^  "  sabbaths" — *  sabbath,'  v.  2.  or  *  one 
of  them.'  So  rf^^pu,  rm  o-ocQQoiTai^  Luke  iv.  16.  Acts  xiii. 
14.  xvi.  13  70.  Lev.  xxiii.  32. 

Heb.ix.  2,  12.  roc  xytu,  "the  sanctuary."  v.  3.  uytcc  xyiui,  "  the 
most  holy  place.** 

Heb.  i.  2.  'O;  xime^^  and  elsewhere.  Some, "  the  world  ;'*  others, 
"  the  ages." 

Gen.  xxiv.  9.  "  Abraham  mx  his  masters,"  a  simple  usage,  or 
for  dignity. 

Ch.  xl.  1.  an-Jlx  "their  lords"-— the  King. 

Ch.  xiii.  50.  "  The  man  'JlX  the  lords" — Joseph.  So  Exod. 
xxi,  4,  6,  8,  29.     1  Kings  xvi.  24.     Isa.  i.  3. 

Q'nSx  plural,  for  *the  one  true  God.'  Some,  to  intimate  a 
plurality  of  persons  ;  but  rather,  a  simple  usage.  Calvin  in 
Gen.  i.  1. 

863.  The  Hebrew  language  having  few  adjectives, 
substantive  nouns  are  sometimes  used  to  supply  their 
place  ;  and  the  abstract  thus  put  for  the  concrete ; 
though  sometimes  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  yet  oftener 
from  mere  necessity,   without  any  such  design ;  and 


296  NOUNS. 

from  i^j  this  usage  is  often  adopted  in  the  language  of 
the  New  Testament. 

Glass.  1.  3.  t.  1.  c.  7.    Macknight,  Ess.  4. 

Gen.  iii.  6.  "  The  tree  was  nixn  a  desire,^*  (or  pleasure)  *  desir- 
able, pleasant,'  or,  perhaps,  •  very  desirable/ 

Gen.  xii.  2.     "  Thou  shalt  be  n3")3  a  blessing,'^  *  blessed,*  or 

*  very  blessed.' 

Gen.  xlvi.  34.     "  Every  shepherd  is  naj^in  an  abomination  to 

the  Egyptians*' — simply  *  abominable.' 
Hag.  ii.  7.  '*  And  mnn  the  desire  of  all  nations  shall  come,*' 

*  desired.* 

Psal.  V.  9.  XXXV.  6.  xxxix.  5.     Ezek.  xxxv.  15.     Dan.  ix.  23. 
Jolin  xvii.  17.      "Thy  word  is  ctXahtu,  truth'* — 'true.'    Eph. 
V.  8.     Rom.  ii.  26.  iii.  30.     Phil.  iii.  2. 

864.  On  the  other  hand,  concrete  nouns,  whether 
adjectives  or  substantives,  are  sometimes  put  for  the 
abstracts,  and  must  be  interpreted  as  if  they  were 
such  ;  but,  there  are  instances  in  which  it  may  be  doubt- 
ful whether  this  is  the  case  or  not. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  2.     Macknight,  ib. 

Gen.  ii^xi.  16.  "  Hagar  sat  down  a  good  way  off  "inDDJ,  as  it 
weBie  shooters  of  a  bow'' — 'a  bow  shot.' 

Dan.  ix.  24.  "  To  seal  up  the  vision  i<'2:),  and  the  prophet*^ — 

*  prophecy,' for  HN'^ri,  which  is  found  in  one  iViS.  Rom.  ii. 
4.  To  %e335"Tov  for  ly  ;ti^85<rT<jTjj5,  "  the  goodness  of  God  leadeth 
to  repentance." 

1  Cor.  i.  25.  T«  f^a^ov  for  ^  f^capix  (which  is  the  word,  v.  18.) 
"  the  foolishness  of  God" — ro  uo-eem  for  ^  uT^evetu,  "the 
weakness  of  God." 

2  Cor.  viii.  8  "  To  prove  ro  yv^r/«»  the  sinceriUj  of  your  love." 
Phil  iv.  5.  "  Let  to  sTteiKu  for  ij  eTrtei^etu,  your  moderation  be 

known." 


NOUNS.  297 

865.  Adjectives,  or  epithets,  sometimes  serve  for 
distinguishing  that  to  which  they  are  applied,  from 
other  things  ;  and,  sometimes,  only  for  describing  that 
thing  itself ;  and  care  must  be  taken  to^  understand 
them  accordingly. 

"The  true  God,*'  not  *who  has  the  attribute  of  truth,' but 


*  who  alone  is  truly  God,'  distinguished  from  those  *  who  are 
called  gods  ;'  it  is  determined  to  this  sense,  either  by  what 
is  joined  with  it,  or  by  being  opposed  to  these. 
I  Pet.  iv.  3.  "  Walked  in  ecSef^iroa  eiSaXoXdrpetetig  unlawful 
idolatries,"  not  distinguished  from  any  *  lawful'  idolatries, 
according  to  Popish  writers,  but  describes  all  idolatry  as 
unlawful ;  it  is  determined  to  this  sense  by  the  nature  of 
the  thing,  and  other  texts. 

866.  Epithets  do  not  always  imply  that  the  qualities, 
or  characters  which  are  the  foundation  of  them,  do 
presently  belong  to  the  subjects  to  which  they  are  ap- 
plied ;  but  are  applied,  sometimes,  because  they  form- 
merly  belonged,^  and,  sometimes,  because  they  were 
afterwards  to  belong,  to  them  ;*  but  this  is  not  to  be 
supposed  rashly.^ 

Glass,  ib.  c.  3. 

^  Gen.  ii.  23.  "  This  is  bone  of  my  bones,"  &c. — was  so,  being 
made  from  his  rib,  v.  21,  22. 

2  Sam.  xxiv.  23,  «  These  things  did  Araunah  -jSDn  (Eng.  «  as  a 
king,"  wrong)  the  king  give ;"  king  of  the  Jebusites,  proba- 
bly, before  David  reduced  them. 

Exod.  vii.  12.  "  Aaron's  rod  swallowed  up  their  rods  ;^*  they 
had  been,  and  were  to  be  such,  though  at  present  serpents. 

Isa.  xi.  6.  "  The  i£?o// shall  dwell  with  the  lamb,"  &c  figurative 
expressions  for  persons  fierce  like  these ;  they  formerly  were 
so,  but  now  totally  changed,  so  as  to  dwell,  &c.     This  gives 
beauty  and  force  to  the  description." 
38 


298  VERBS. 

Mat.  xi.  5.  «  The  blind  see,  the  lame  walk,"  &c.    They  who 

were  blind,  lame,  &c.     So  John  ix.  17.  "the  blind  man," 

'that  had  been  blind,' — or,  *  receive   sight,  the  power  of 

walking,'  &c. 
So,  Mat.  X.  3.    xxvi.  6.    xxi.  31.    Rom.  iv.  5.     1  Cor.  xv.  5. 

Heb.  xi.  31. 
*Gen.  xxix.  21.    Deut.  xxii.  24.      Mat.  i.  20.      "  Wife,"  a 

woman  betrothed. 
John  X.  16.  "  Other  sheep  I  have."      Ch.  xi.  52.  "  Children  of 

God,"  not  then,  but  were  to  be. 
Eph.  V.  27.  "  The  church  glorious,"  &c.  not  now,  but  shall  be 

in  heaven. 
3  Mat.  xxvi.  26.     1  Cor.  x.  16.  xi.  26,  27,  28.     "  Bread,"  not 

because    such   only  before    blessing,  according  to   Popish 

writers  ;  for  it  still  remains  bread. 


SECT.  V. 


The  Usage  of  Verbs. 

867.  The  usage  of  verbs  respects  their  general  sig- 
nification— and  their  several  accidents,  mode — tense — 
person — number — voice  ;  in  all  which  there  are  pecu- 
liarities productive  of  dilBiculty. 

868.  The  genius  of  the  Hebrew  language  occasions 
many  peculiarities  in  the  signification  of  its  verbs ; 
[151.  156.  157.  158.]  which  must  be  attended  to  in 
explaining  them  ;  and  these  are^  likewise,  carried  into 
the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament. 


VERBS.  299 

869.  The  Hebrew  language  having  no  compound 
verbs,  simple  verbs,  both  in  it  and  the  Greek  of  the 
New  Testament,  have  often  the  signification  of  what 
would,  in  other  languages,  be  their  compounds  with 
different  prepositions  ;  but,  as  this  is  not  always  the 
case,  it  may,  sometimes,  produce  an  ambiguity,  which 
is  to  be  determined  by  the  sense,  or  by  parallel  pas- 
sages. 

Glass.  I.  S.  t.  3.  c.  1. 

loy  simply  *  to  stand  ;'  but  Dan.  xi.  3,  4.  *  to  stand  against, 
resist.'  "A  mighty  king  (Alexander)  shall  (stand  up,  Eng.) 
resist ;  and  when  he  shall  (stand  up,  Eng.)  have  resisted,  his 
kingdom  shall  be  broken."  The  connexion,  v.  2.  shows  this 
to  be  the  sense. 

Si3J  '  to  fall' — but  also  *to  fall  away'  or  desert.   Jer.  xxxvii.  13. 

"Thou  fallest  (away)  to  the  Chaldeans."— « to  fall  off,  fail.' 

Josh.  xxi.  45.     1  Kings  viii.   56.    "  There  hath  not  failed," 

become  void. 
John  X.  16.    "  rhem  also  I  mustering","  «y«ye/v, for  a-wet^ayeiv 

'gather  together,'  ch.  xi.  52.  or  Tr^oa-ccyxyetv,  *  to  bring  to'  the 

fold. 
John  xiv.  31.  Ayaf^n,  for  vTruyMf^ev,  «  let  US  withdraw,"  retire. 

V.  18,  28.    Ep^ofA^ott,  "  I  come,"  for  uve^x^f*-*'  "  I  return"— 

enallage  for  uvs^^evG-o/LLeti  "I  will  return." 

870.  In  the  Hebrew,  and,  from  its  usage,  in  the 
Greek  of  the  New  Testament,  a  verb,  besides  the  ac- 
tion strictly  denoted  by  it,  implies,  likewise,  another 
related  action  ;  so  that  the  idiom  of  other  languages 
requires  the  supplying  of  another  verb  for  expressing 
its  full  force,  or  its  real  meaning. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  2. 

npS  "  to  take,"  but  often,  "  to  take  and  bring,"  or,  having 
taken  to  bring."      Gen.  xv.  9,  10.    Exod.  xviii.  2.     xxvii. 


300  VERBS. 

20.  Num.  xix.  2. — Mat.  iv.  5,  8.  TrupuXctf^^uvet,  « took,'*  i.  e. 
*  having  taken  carried.'  So  ch.  xxvii.  '2.7.  Gen.  sliii.  34. 
iiW)  "  And  he  took  (and  sent,  Eng.)  messes  unto  them." 

V.  33.  inj;-i  S«  ty*N  a^i^/JNn  innnn,  « the  men  marvelled  one  at 
another,"  Eng.  but  this  is  not  the  sense  ;  they  all  marvelled 
at  Joseph's  behaviour.  Literally,  "  marvelled  one  to  anoth- 
er," but  not  English — "  marvelling  they  looked,"  or,  "  they 
looked  with  wonder  one  at  another." 

Rev.  xiii.  3.  i6xvi^xTef  07ri(rek>  m  ^tiptov,  "wondered  after  the 
beast,"  Eng.  this  is  literal,  but  wants  precision — "  looked 
with  wonder,"  or  "  wondering  followed  after  the  beast." 

Ezra  ii.  62.  l^XJ^l,  literally,  "  And  they  were  polluted  from 
the  priesthood ;"  "  as  polluted  put  from,"  Eng.  which  i* 
right,  V.  63* 

Psal.  Ixxxix.  39.  nSSn  "  thou  hast  profaned  his  crown  to  the 
ground  ;*' — "  by  casting  it  to,"  Eng. 

Isa.  xiv.  17.  nn*3  nna  5<^  rn-DN*,  literally,  "loosed  not  his 
prisoners  homeward." — Eng.  -  opened  not  the  house  of  his 
prisoners,"  no  version. — supply,  "  that  they  might  return," 
or  "  sent  them"  home. 

Ch.  xxxviii.  17.  npK'H  "thou  hast  loved  my  soul  from  the  pit." 
—Eng.  "  hast  in  love  to  my  soul  delivered  it  from." 

Luke  xxi.  38.  "  All  the  people  apSpt^e  vrpoi  uvrov,  literally, 
"  rose  early  in  the  morning,  or  by  the  dawn,  to  him" — 
"  came  to  him,"  Eng. — "  rising  came." 

871.  Verbs  sometimes  denote,  not  the  action  or 
effect  expressed  by  them  simply,  but  under  some  par- 
ticular modification  of  it.  [876.] 

872.  Thus,  verbs  expressing  an  action  or  effect, 
sometimes  denote  only  the  beginning,^  and  sometimes, 
only  the  continuance  of  it.^  [156.] 

Glass,  ib.  c.  3,  4. 
*  1  Sam.  iii.  21.  «'  The  Lord  appeared  again  (continued   to  ap- 


VERBS.  301 

pear)  rtSjJ  o.  Eng.  "for  he  revealed;"    others,  "after the 
had  revealed  (begun  to  reveal)  himself  to  Samuel." 

1  Kings  vi.  1.  "In  the  fourth  year  \y}  and  he  built,"  "  began 
to  build,"  Eng.  for  it  was  finished  in  the  eleventh,  v.  38. 
confirmed  by  2  Chron.  iii.  1,  2. 

Mat.  ii.  7.  "  The  time  th  (paivcf^^evtv  ««-f ^as  when  the  star  appear- 
ed," began  to  appear,  v.  16. 

Luke  V.  6.  "  Their  net  S'le^^nyvvro  brake,"  began  to  break,  or 
was  like  to  break,  v.  7. 
^  Lev.  xxvi.  11.  TiiiJl  "  And  I  will  set  my  tabernacle  (continue) 
among  }ou." 

Jer.  vii.  3.  nJDiyxi  "  And  I  will  cause  you  to  dwell  (continue 
to  dwell)  in  this  place," 

873.  Verbs  sometimes  express,  not  simply  doing 
the  action,  but  doing  it  in  a  particular  manner,  con- 
noting some  quality,  adjunct,  or  condition  of  it. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  13,  14. 

Ezek.  xxvi.  14. "  Thou  shalt  be  built  no  more,"  Tyre — not  strict- 
ly true,  Palsetyrus — but  '  not  built  magnificently,  elegantly.' 

Prov.  xxxi.  4.  "  It  is  not  for  kings  to  drink  wine,"  immoder- 
ately, to  excess. 

Mat.  xi.  18,  19.  "  Neither  eating  nor  drinking,"  abstemious  in 
both — "  eating  and  drinking,"  not  immoderately,  but  freely, 
like  other  men. 

Mat.  x.  3£.  "  Confess  me,"  not  simply,  but  with  faith,  boldness, 
subjection,  v.  27,  28.    Rom.  x.  9.     So  1  Johniv.  15. 

John  viii.  34.  1  John  iii.  9.  v.  18.  "Commit  sin,"  wilfully, 
deliberately,  habitually. 

1  Sam.  X.  24.     1  Kings  i.  25.     "^Sdh  'n%  Eng.  "  God  save  the 
king,"  but  literally,  "  may  the  king  live,"  prosperously,  hap- 
pily.    1  Sam.  XXV.  6.  "  to  him  that  liveth,"  Eng.  supply  "  in 
prosperity."     JSo  Psal.  xxii.  26.  Ixix.  32. 
1  Thess.  iii.  8,  "  Now  we  live,"  are  happy. 

"  To  will,*'  does  not  signify  always  simple  volition. — '  To  will 


^02  VERBS. 

with  alacrity  and  readiness,'  Mark  x.  35.  Qs^o/nev,  "  We 
will, '  wish  earnestly.  Ch.  xii.  38.  ^eAovTA»»,  "  who  will,'* 
*  lovBy^  Eiig.  Gal.  iv.  21.  ^cAoires,  Eng.  "  who  desire  to  be 
under  the  law."  1  Tim.  vi.  9.  (^ovMf^evot  ttXhtuv,  "  they  that 
will  be  rich,"  who  wish  for  it  earnestly,  immoderately. — *To 
will,  not  absolutely,  but  under  a  condition.'  Mat.  xi.  27. 
**  To  whomsoever  the  Son  (t^aX'^reci)  will  reveal,"  not  arbi- 
trarily, but  to  those  who  are  qualified,  as  appears  from  the 
connexion,  v.  25,  28.  Rom.  ix  18.  "  He  hath  mercy  on 
whom  he  will,"  ov  ^iXn,  who  are  qualified  as  he  requires. 
"  And  whom  he  will,  he  hardeneth,"  who  deserve  it  by  ob- 
stinacy. Locke,  Taylor  in  loc. 
"  Can,  cannot,'^  signify  not  simply  what  is  possible  or  impos- 
sible, but  can  v/ith  ease,  convenience,  safety,  inclination ; 
cannot  without  difficulty,  pain,  inconvenience,  danger,  loss. 
Gen.  xliv.  22.  "  The  lad  cannot  leave  his  father,"  conve- 
niently, safely,  "  for  his  father  would  die."  Ruth  iv.  6.  "  I 
cannot  redeem,"  without  loss,  inconvenience,  "  lest  I  mar," 
&c.  2  Sam.  xvii.  17.  "  They  might  not  be  seen,"  without 
danger,  v.  18,  &c.  Luke  xi.  7.  "  I  cannot  rise,"  without 
trouble,  inconvenience.  Mark  vi.  5.  "  He  could  there  do 
no  mighty  work" — would  not.  or,  did  not.  John  vii.  7. 
"The  world  cannot  (will  not)  hate  you."  Rev.  ii.  2. 
"  Thou  canst  not  bear  them  that  are  evil,"  witliout  pain,  or, 
wilt  not. 

874.  Verbs  expressive  of  an  action^  are  often  used^ 
not  to  signify  the  doing  of  that  action,  but  only  to  de- 
note some  of  the  causes,  or  prerequisites  to  the  doing 
of  it. 

876.  Thus,  verbs  of  acting,  often,  in  Scripture,  are 
intended  to  signify  only  the  power  of  acting ;  and  this 
usage  gives  great  beauty  and  force  to  description. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  5. 

Exod.  ix.  15.  'nnSl^  « I  have  stretched  (Eng.  "  ivill  stretch,'' 
wrong)  out  my  hand,  "jNi  and   I  have  smote  (Eng.  "  that  I 


VERBS.  303 

may  smite,"  wrong)  thee— and  thou  shalt  be  cut  oflf."  This 
is  not  true,  as  appears  from  the  sequel ;  it  is  contrary  to  v. 
16-  "For  this  cause  I'mDjrn  ('have  1  raised  thee  up,' 
Eng.  but)  "  have  I  made  thee  to  stand,"  preserved  thee  safe 
from  all  plagues,  "  for  to  show  in  thee  my  power,"  more 
signally,  ch.  xiv.  23,  &c.  Therefore  it  should  be,  "I  could 
stretch  out,  and  smite,  and  cut  oft';  but  for  this  cause," 
&c.  Job.  ix.  5,  6,  7.  "  which  removeth — overturneth — 
shaketh — commandeth — sealeth,"  &c.  not  actually  does,  but 
can  do. 

Zech.  ii.  4.  "  Jerusalem  shall  be  inhabited — without  walls ;" 
not  actually,  but  might  be  with  safety. 

Mat.  vii.  16.  "Do  (can)  men  gather."  Rom.  x.  14.  "How 
shall  (can)  they  call,"  &c.  1  Cor.  ii.  15.  "  He  that  is  spiritual 
judgeth  (can  judge)  all  things — himself  is  (can  be)  judged  of 
no  man." 

876.  As  power  is  limited  by  right,  verbs  denoting 
the  power  of  acting/  and^  likewise,  verbs  denoting  ac- 
tion/ often  signify  only  the  right  of  acting,  or  what 
can  be  lawfully  done. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  6,  12. 

^  Gen.  xxiv.  50.  "  We  cannot  (lawfully)  speak  bad  or  good." 

So  ch.  xxxiv,  14.  xliii.  31. 
Deut.  xvi.  5.  "  Thou  canst  not  (lawfully.  Eng.    "  mayest  not") 

sacrifice  the  passover  within  thy  gates." 
Acts  iv.  20.  "  We  cannot  (lawfully)  but  speak." 
I  Cor.  iii.   11.      "Other  foundation  can  no  man   (lawfully) 

lay." 

2  Gen.  XX.  9.  **  Thou  hast  done  deeds  which  V^^;'  nS,  shall  not 
(cannot  lawfully,  ought  not  to)  be  done." 

Heb.  V.  4.  «  No  man  taketh  this  honour,"  lawfully  can,  ought 
to  take. 


304  VERBS. 

877.  By  a  further  extension,  verbs  of  action  some- 
times denote  the  obligaton  to  act,  not  only  in  negative 
propositions,  where  '  unlawful'  and  '  ought  not'  are 
synonymous,  but  also  in  affirmative  propositions, 
where  obligation  to  do  is  different  from  mere  lawful- 
ness. 

Glass,  ib. 

Neh.  V.  8.  "  We  have  redeemed  the  Jews,"  ought  to  have  re- 
deemed ;  but  had  not,  "  Will  ye  sell  them  ;" 

Psal.  xxxii.  8.  "  The  way  which  thou  shalt  go,"  oughtest  to 
go. 

Mai.  ii.  7.   '*  The  priest's  lips  nDK^'  shall  keep  knowledge," 

ought  to  keep,  but  did  not,  v.  8. 
Mat.  xxvi.  52.  "  Shall  perish,"  ought,  deserve  to  perish. 
Luke  iii.  14.  "  What  shall  we  (ought  we  to)  do?"    What  are 

our  duties  ?  as  appears  from  the  sequel. 
Ch.  vii.  42.  *'  Which  of  them  will  (ought  to)  love  most  ?" 

878.  Verbs  of  action  sometimes  signify  the  will  or 
inclination  to  do  that  action,^  or  the  endeavour  to  do 
it,*  or  both  these  together.^ 

Glass,  ib.  c.  7,  8.     Macknight,  Epist.  Essay  4.  i.  1. 
^  Gen.  xxiv.  58.      obnn  "wilt  thou  go?    ^Sn  I  will  go."  not 

simple  futurity,  but,  chuse,  incline  to  go. 
Exod.  xvi.  23.  "  Bake  that  which  you  will  (chuse  to)  bake," 

&c. 
1  Sam.  xxi.  9.  "  If  thou  wilt  (chuse  to)  take  that,  take  it." 

Mat.  xiii.  13.  "Seeing  they  see  not,"  &c.  chuse  not  to  see, 

hear,  understand. 
Ch.  xxiii.  8.  Mv  »Ajj<I^t*,  «  Be  not  je  called  Rabbi,"  desire  not, 

affect  not  to  be,  as  appears  from  the  connexion,  v.  6,  7.  *  love 

to  be  called.' 
liuke  xxii.  26.  **  He  that  is  greatest,  he  that  is  chief,"  wishes 

to  be.  Mat.  xx.  22.  Mark  x.  43. 


VERBS  305 

John  XV.  15.  "  What  his  lord  doth,"  chuses,  intends  to  do. 

*  Exod.  viii.  18.  "The  magicians  did  so  with  their  enchant- 
ments," endeavoured  to  do  it,  "  but  they  could  not." 

Ezek.  xxiv.  13.  "I  have  purified  thee,"  endeavoured,  used 
means,  been  at  pains,  "  and  thou  was  not  purged." 

John  V.  44.  Auf/.Q<t9ovr£i,  "  who  receive  honour,"  labour  to  ob- 
tain it. 

Rom.  ii.  4.  "  The  goodness  of  God  ccyet  leadeth  thee  to  repent- 
ance," endeavours  or  tends  to  lead,  or,  ought  to  lead. 

1  Cor,  X.  33.  "  I  please  all  men,"  endeavour  to  please. 

Gal  V.  4.  "  Whosoever  of  you  are  justified  by  the  law,"  en- 
deavour to  be  justified  by  keeping  it. 

^  Psal  Ixix.  4.  M^Di'D,  "  they  that  destroy,"  wish  and  endeavour 
to  destroy. 

Amos  ix.  3.  "  Though  they  be  hid  from  my  sight,"  wish  and 

endeavour  to  hide  themselves,  though  they  could  not  actually 

do  it. 
John  V.  34,  41.      Ov  Xccf^^etva,  "I  receive  not,"  affect  not  and 

endeavour  not  to  receive. 
Acts  vii.  26.  SyfjjAaa-si',  '*  set  them  at  one."  Eng.  "  would  have 

set,"  wished  and  endeavoured,  Exod.  ii.  13. 

879.  Verbs  of  action  sometimes  denote,  not  the 
energy,  but  the  habit  and  custom  of  acting/  or  a 
permanent  quality  disposing  to  act,^  or  even  a  perma- 
nent quality  not  so  disposing,  but  only  possessed.^ 

Glass,  ib.c.  9,  21. 
*  Gen,  vi.  21.  "All  food  is  eaten,"  uses  to  be  customary  food  of 
all  species. 
Ch.  xxix.  26.  n^V'  vh,  "  It  shall  not  be  done."  Eng.  "  it  must 

not ;"  ft  is  not  customary. 
Mark  xv.  6.  ATreAwev,  "  he  released,"  was  wont  to  release.  Mat, 
xxvii.  15. 
2  Exod.  iv.  14.  "  Aaron"  '^2T  nai,  literally,  "  speaking  he  speaks." 
39 


306  VEllBS. 

Eng.  "speaks  well,"  has  the  quality  which  fits  him  for 
speaking  eloquently. 
3  Lev.  xi.  3,  &c.  "  Which  part  the  hoof,"  have  it  parted  or  di- 
vided. 
Mat,  xxiii.  5.  U^otrvvnTi,  "  they  make  broad  their  phylacteries, 
X.XI  fA^syuXwavi^  and  enlarge  the  borders,"  &c.  have  or  use 
them  broad,  large. 

880.  Verbs  expressive  of  a  person's  doing  an  action, 
sometimes  signify  only  his  giving  another  power  or  in- 
clination to  do  it/  or  commanding  and  directing  him 
to  do  it,^  or  permitting  his  doing  it/  or  consenting  to, 
and  approving  of  it.^ 

Glass,  ib.  c.  11,  22.     Macknight,  Epist.  prel.  Ess.  4.  i.  4. 
^  Acts  X.   20.  "  I  (the  Spirit)  have  sent  them."     Cornelius  had 
sent  them,  v.  8,  21.  but  the  Spirit  inclined  and  moved  him, 
and  that  not  immediately,  but  by  an  angel  commanding  and 
directing  him,  v.  3,  5. 
^  Gen.  xlvi.  29.  "  Joseph  made  ready  his  chariot,*'  by  his  servants, 
commanded  them  to  make  ready. 
2  Sam.   xii.  9.  "  Thou  hast  killed  Uriah."      David  did  not  kill 
him  himself,  but  "  with  the  sword   of  the  children  of  Am- 
mon,"   to  which    he  was   opposed    by    David's   order,  ch. 
xi   15. 
John  iii.  22.  iv.  1.  "Jesus  baptized,"  commanded  his  disciples; 
they,  by  his  order  and  authority,  baptized,  v.  2. 
3  1  Sam.  xiv.  36.  nxiyj,  "  Let  us  not  preserve  a  man  of  them." 
Eng.  "leave,"  sufter  to  remain. 
Job.  i.  21.  "  The  Lord  hath  taken  away,*^  permitted  the  Sabe- 

ans,  &c.  to  take  awa}^,  v.  15,  17. 
Psal.   cxix.  31.  "Put  me  not  (permit  me  not  to^e  put)  to 
shame,"  i.  e.  deliver  me  from  what  would  make  my  enemies 
insult. 
Isa.  Ixiii.  17.  "  Why  hast  thou  made  ns  to  err  from  thy  ways  ?" 
permitted  us. 


VERBS.  307 

Jer.  XV  15.  "  Take  rae  not  away  in  thy  long  suffering,"  permit 
mit  not  my  persecutors  to  take  me  away,  by  forbearing  long 
^0  punisli  them. 

Mat.  vi.  13.  "Lead  us  into  temptation,"  permit  us  not  to 
be  led. 

1  Cor.  vi.  7.  "  Why  rather  et9iKeiT$e,  xTraTrepeiTh,  are  ye  not  in- 
jured, defrauded?" — *  do  ye  not  take  wrong,  suffer  your- 
selves to  be  defrauded '"  Eng. 

^  Judg.  ix.  18.  Of  the  men  of  Shechem,  "Ye  have  slain  his 
sons."  Abimelech  did  it,  v.  5.  but  thev  consented,  gave 
him  the  money  which  enabled  him,  strengthened  his  hands, 
v.  4,  24. 

2  Sam.  iii.  30.  "  Joab  and  Abishai  slew  Abner."  Joab  slew 
him,  V  27.  1  Kings  ii.  5.     Abner  only  consented  or  approved. 

Mark  x.  35.  "  The  sons  of  Zebedee"  asked  the  chief  places ; 
but  Mat.  XX.  20.  their  mother  asked  them  for  them.  Some, 
*  She  of  her  own  accord,  as  kinswoman  and  constant  attend- 
ant of  Jesus,  but  they  consenting ;'  therefore  they  are  an- 
swered, V.  22.  and  said  by  Mark,  to  ask.  Grot.  Maldonat. — 
Others,  *  She  by  their  instigation,'  to  avoid  envy,  and  obtain 
greater  favour;  therefore,  they  alone  are  answered,  v.  22. 
Glass,  ib. 

881.  Verbs  which  attribute  an  action  or  effect  to  a 
person  or  thing,  are  sometimes  intended  to  signify  only 
that  that  person  or  thing  gives  occasion  to  it,^  or  is  an 
instrument  in  producing  it.^ 

Glass,  ib.  c.  10,  22.  Macknight,  Ess.  4. 
^  Exod.  xxiii.  8.  "  The  gift  blindeth  the  eyes — and  perverteth 
the  words ;"  is  the  occasion  of  not  discerning  and  following- 
what  is  right. 
2  Sam.  xii.  14.  "By  this  deed  mvw  yM  irritating  thou  hast 
irritated  the  enemies  to  blaspheme." — "given  great  occa- 
sion," Eng. 

Psal.  Ixxvi.  10.  «  The  wrath  of  man  shall  praise  thee,"  shall 
prove  an  occasion  of  praising,  though  its  aim  and  tendency 
be  the  reverse. 


308 


VERBS 


Isa.  xliii.  24.    "  Thou  hast  made  me  to  serve  with  thy  sins." 
Acts  i.  18.    Judas  eKxvta-uro  "purchased  a  field  with  the  reward 

of  iniquity,"  was  only  the  occasion  of  its  being  purchased, 

by  returning  the  money.  Mat.  xxvii.  3,  &c. 
Rom.  xiv.  15.     "Destroy  not  him   with  thy  meat,"  &c.  give 

not  occasion  for  his  being  destroyed,  by  turning  from  the 

faith. 
*  Exod.  xiv.  16.    "  Stretch  out  thy  hand  over  the  sea,  and  divide 

it."    Moses  could  not :  God  did  it  by  him,  ch.  xv.  4,  &c. 
1  Cor.  vii.  16.  S-wre/j,  "  shalt  save,"  be  the  means,  instrument 

of  saving. 
1  Tim.  iv.  16.  "Thou  shalt  save  them  that  hear  thee,"  be  the 

instrument. 

882  Verbs  expressive  of  a  person^s  doing  an  action, 
or  producing  an  effect,  are  often  used  for  signifying 
only?  his  supposing  it,^  his  discovering  and  acknow- 
ledging it/  or  his  notifying,  declaring,  promising,  or 
foretelling  it,^  which  last  usage  it  is  of  peculiar  im- 
portance to  attend  to,  in  the  prophetical  writings.'* 

Glass,  ib.  c.  15,  17,  18.     Macknight,  Ess.  4.  i.  3. 
^  Gen.  xlii.  30.  |iTi,  "And  he  placed  us  as  spies." — '^took  us 
for  spies,"  Eng. — supposed,  reckoned  us. 

1  Kings  i.  21.  "I  and  my  son  Solomon  'n^'n  shall  be  offend- 
ers,"— '*  counted  offenders,"  Eng. 

Mat.  x.  39.  "He  that  jindeth  «  \vpm,  his  life,  shall  lose  it," 
who  thinks  that  he  can  find  it  by  deserting  the  gospel,  or  en- 
deavours to  find  it. 

Ch.  xiii.  12.  "  Whosoever  hath  not,  from  him  shall  be  taken 
away  »««<  o  ex^f,  even  that  he  hath,"  thinketh  that  he  hath. 
"  seemeth  to  have,"  Eng.  Luke  viii.  18. 

John  vii.  28.    "  Ye  both  know  me,  and  ye  know  whence  I  am,** 
think  that  ye  know. 
*  Job  V.  3.     3ip^;i"and  I  cursed   his  habitation,'*  knew  that  it 
would  be  made  unhappy. 


VERBS.  309 

Psal.  cxix.  128.  ^n'ltS'^"!  rectify,"  or  make  right ;  "esteem 
to  be  right,"  Eng.  know  and  acknowledge. 

Hos.  V.  15.  "I  will  go  till  M^WH'  they  be  guilty,"  become  sen- 
sible of,  and  acknowledge  their  guilt. 

1  Cor.  iii.  18.  Mapog  yeveTBoff  "  let  him  become  a  fool,"  be  sen- 
sible that  he  is  a  fool. 

2  Cor.  vii.  14.  Our  boasting  ctXi)6£{x  eyevr^Sti  is  become  truth/' 
discovered  to  be,  "  found  a  truth,"  Eng. 

'  Exod.  xiii.  2.  'h  lyip,  «  Sanctify  to  me  the  first-born,"  declare* 
that  they  are  separated  to  me,  v.  11,  12,  13. 
Lev.  xiii.  3.    "  The  priest  shall  look  on  him,  KODl  and  shall 
defile  him,"  pronounce  him  unclean.     So  v.  13,  17.     nnCJ 
"  cleanse,"  declare  clean. 

Psal.  xxxiv.  3.  "iSiJ,  "make  great,  magnify  the  Lord,"  declare 

or  acknowledge  him  to  be  great. 
Acts  X.  15.    **What  God  sKxOxpirs  hath  cleansed  (pronounced 

clean)  that  do  not  thou  koivov  make  (call)  common,"  v.  28. 
*  Gen.  XXXV.  12.    "  The  land  which  I  gave  to  Abraham  and  Fsaac, 

to  thee  will  I  give  it,  and  to  thy  seed  will  I  give  it,*'  which  I 

promised  to  Abraham  and  Isaac,  I  promise  to  thee,  and  will 

give  to  thy  seed. 
Ch.  xli  13.    "Me  he  restored  unto  mine  office,  and  him  he 

hanged,"  foretold  these  events,  ch.  xl.  13,  19. 

1  Kings  xix.  15,  16.  "Anoint  Hazael  to  be  king  over  Svria," 
foretell  that  he  shall  be,  2  Kings  viii.  13. — *'  And  Jehu  shalt 
thou  anoint  to  be  king  over  Israel,"  only  could  foretell  it, 
for  Elisha  anointed  him,  2  Kings  ix.  2,  &c. 

Isa.  vi.  9,  10.    "  Make  the  heart  of  this  people  fat,  make  their 

ears  heavy,  shut  their  eyes,"  prophecy  that  they  shall  be  fat, 

deaf,  blind. 
Jer.  i.  10.    "I  have  set  thee  over  the  nations,  to  root  out,  pull 

down,  destroy,  throw  down,  build,  plant,"  to  foretell  all  these 

things. 

Ch.  XV.  1.  "Cast  them  out  of  my  sight,"  foretell  that  they 
shall  be  cast  out,  v.  7. 


310  VERBS. 

Ezek.  xiii.  19.  "Will  ye  (the  false  prophets)  pollute  'me — to 
slay  the  souls  that  (Eng.  "  should")  shall  not  die,  and  to  save 
the  souls  alive  that  (should)  shall  not  live  ?"  to  toretell  that 
they  shall  be  slain,  saved  alive  ;  for  it  is  added,  "  by  your 
lying  to  my  people." 

Ch.  xxi.  26.  "  Remove  the  diadem,  take  off  the  crown,  exalt 
him  that  is  low,  abase  him  that  is  high,"  predict  that  these 
things  shall  be. 

Ch.  xliii.  3.  "  The  vision  which  T  saw  when  I  came  to  destroy 
the  city,"  to  predict  its  destruction,  ch.  ix.  x, 

883.  Affirmative  verbs  are  sometimes  to  he  under- 
stood only  in  the  sense  of  their  contraries,  with  a  nega- 
tion or  an  extenuation. 

Glass  ib.  c   19. 

Deut.  iii.  S6.     n^rn'-i  "  But  the  Lord  was  wroth  with  me  for 

your  sakes  ;"  the  term  implies  great  wrath,  but  here,  only 

the  not  granting  his  request  to  enter  into  Canaan,  v.  25. 
Mai.  i.  2,  3.     "  I  loved  Jacob,  and  I  hated  Esau,"  quoted 

Rom.  ix   13. — loved  Jacob  more  than  Esau,  preferred  him. 
Luke  xiv.  26.     *'  If  any  man  hate  not  his  father  and  mother," 

&c.  love  not  them  less  than  me.  Mat.  x.  37. 

884.  Negative  verbs  are  often  put  for  the  contrary 
affirmative  verbs,  and  sometimes  express  the  sense  of 
them  with  emphasis. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  20. 

Lev.  X.  1.    '*  Strange  fire  which  he  commanded  them  not," 

expressly  forbade. 
1  Sam.  xii.  21.    "  Vain  things  which  cannot  profit,"  idols  which 

will  hurt  you  by  provoking  God. 
Psal.  Ixxxiv.  11.     **  No  good  thing  will  he  withhold  from  them 

that  walk  uprightly,"  will  give  them  all  good  things. 

Prov.  xii.  3.  «  A  man  shall  not  be  established  by  wickedness," 
shall  be  overthrown. 


VERBS.  311 

Cir, xvii.  21.  "The  father  of  a  fool  hath  not  joy,"  hath  great 

sorrow. 
Zech,  viii.  17.  "  Love  not  a  false  oath,"  hate  it. 
John  xiv.  18.  "I  will  not  leave  you  o^^ixva^  orphans."    Eng. 

"  comfortless,"  will  protect,  give  comfort,  "  I  will  come  to 

you." 
Rom.  iv.  19    Mi)  u<r6evD<ru<;,  "  being  not  weak   in  faith,"  very 

strong,  as  appears  from  the  connexion. 
llev.  xii.  11"  They  loved  not  their  lives  unto  the  death,"  they 

readily  resigned  them  to  death. 

885.  It  is  sometimes  taken  notice  of,  as  an  usage  in 
the  Hebrew  verbs,  that  the  persons  are  interchanged ; 
but  the  instances  alleged,  of  the  second  person  being 
put  for  the  third,  and  the  third  person  for  the  first  or 
the  second,  seem  to  be  only  false  readings,  of  which 
some  are  corrected  by  manuscripts  still  extant,  and 
none  are  countenanced  by  the  ancient  versions  ;  and 
when  the  first  person  is  used  for  either  of  the  other 
two,  it  is  properly  a  figure,  which  will  be  considered 
afterwards. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  50. 

886.  Plural  verbs  are  sometimes  used  in  a  singular 
sense ;  confessedly  in  the  second  and  third  persons,^ 
and  most  probably  in  the  first  also.^ 

Glass,  ib.  c.  51. 

^  Job  xviii.  2.  "  How  long  will  it  be  ere  prD'B^n  ye  make  an  end 
ofwords?"Bildadto  Job. 
Gen.  xxxiv.  27.  "  Because  ixrDD  theij  had  defiled  their  sister." 
hhechem  alone  had  done  it,  v.  2,  &c.  one  of  them.  (861.) 

Mat.  ii.  20.  "  They  are  dead  ^^  hich  sought  the  child's  life," 
Herod. 

2  Gen.  xxix.  27.  "  Fulfil  her  week  njnJi  and  we  will  give  thee 
this  also."    Laban  alone  savs  this. 


312  VERBS. 

2  Sam.  xvi.  20.  «  Give  counsel  what  niifV2  we  shall  do." 
Absalom  alone  speaks,  and  there  is  no  intimation  of  his  in- 
cluding his  generals  along  with  him. 

1  Kings  xii.  9.  "  What  counsel  give  ye  y\if})  that  we  may 
answer  this  people  ?"  Rehoboam  alone  spoken  to,  and  he 
alone  answered,  v.  IS,  14. 

Ch  xxii.  3.  "  Raraoth  is  ours,  and  we  be  still  and  take  it  not." 
Ahab. 

Job  xviii.  2,  3.  "  We  will  speak  ;  wherefore  are  we  counted," 
&c    Bildad. 

Dan.  ii  36.  IDX:,  "  We  will  tell  the  interpretation."  Daniel, 
perhaps  joining  his  companions  with  him,  v.  17,  18.  but 
perhaps  himself  only,  v.  16,  19,  23 — 27. 

Mark  iv.  30.  "  Whereunto  shall  we  liken,  &c.  shall  we  compare 
it?"  Christ. 

John  iii.  11.  "  We  speak  that  we  do  know,"  &c.  Christ,  not 
along  with  the  prophets,  Beza. — nor,  with  the  Father  and 
Spirit ;  it  suits  Christ  himself,  ch.  i.  18.  iii.  32. 

Rom.  i.  5.  "  We  have  received  grace  and  apostleship."  Paul. 

Gen.  i.  26.  "  Let  us  make  man,"  &c.  it  does  not  necessarily 
imply  a  plurality  of  persons, 

887.  The  preterite  has  sometimes  the  force  of  the 
pi usquam- perfect ;  not  only  in  the  Hebrew,  where  the 
want  of  the  latter  makes  it  necessary ;  but  likewise 
in  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament,  both  it  and  the 
aorists. 
Glass,  ib.  c.  46.  Macknight,  ib.  Ess.  4.  ii.  3. 
Gen.  xii.  I.  •nDK'l,  "  The  Lord  had  said  to  Abram,"  Eng.  before 

Terah's  death,  ch.  xi.  31.  Acts  vii.  2,  3. 
Gen  xxix.   12.  '\y\  "And  Jacob   (had)  told  Rachel,"  before 

what  is  related  v.  1 1. 
Exud  xxxiii.  5.  noN^l,  "  And  the  Lord  said  (had  said,  Eng.) 

unto  Moses,"  as  appears  from  the  connexion. 
Luke  xix.  15.  "  He   commanded  these   servants  to  be  called 


VERBS.  313 

unto  him,  to  whom  $^ente  he  had  given  (Eng.)  the  money,*' 
Mat.  xiv.  3.  "  Herod  having  seized  John,  tJjjrev  xvt6v  kxi  thro 
had  bound  him  and  put  him  in  prison,"  a  considerable  time 
before. 

John  iv.  44.  «  He  departed  thence — ^for  Jesus  tf^xprvptiTev  had 
testified,"  before  his  departure. 

888.  The  past  has  sometimes  the  force  of  the  pre- 
sent ;  not  only  in  the  Hebrew,  which  wants  a  present 
tense,  but  also  in  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament. 

Glass,  and  Macknight,  ib. 

Gen-  xxxii.  10.  "  1  was  (am)  small  for  (less  than)  the  least  of 
all  thy  mercies." 

Exod.  xxxiii.  i9.  'n^JHI,  '*  And  I  have  been  (am,  will  be)  gra- 
cious to  whom  I  will  be  gracious,  inomi  and  have  shown 
(show,  will  show)  mercy,"  &c. 

Mat.  iii.  17.  "  M  j  beloved  Son,  in  whom  ev^ox,i,<rx  I  am  weW 
pleased."     So  Luke  lii.  22. 

Mat.  xxiii.  2.  "  The  Scribes  and  Pharisees  eKu6ia-xv  sit  in  Moses* 

chair." 
Luke  i.  47.  "  My  spirit  j^yaAA/ao-f  hath  rejoiced."    Eng.  "  doth 

rejoice." 
John  i.  15.  cirai  i,v,  «  this  was  (is)  he  of  whom  I  spake."  v.  26. 

£o-Tj}j65»,  "  there  standeth  one  among  you." 

Acts  xii.  14.  "  Told  that  Peter  eTravui  stands  at  the  door." 

889.  The  tenses  expressive  of  the  past,  have  some- 
times, in  Scripture,  the  signification  of  the  future ; 
and  that,  not  only  in  predictions,  for  expressing  the 
certainty  of  the  event,  but  also  in  other  cases. 

Glass.  Macknight  ib. 

Isa.  ix.  6.  «  Unto  us  a  child  nV  hath  been  born,  a  son  jnj  hath 
been  given,"  shall  be. 

Ch.  xxi.  9.  J<:i,  "  There  hath  (shall,  «  cometh,"  Eng.)  come  a 

chariot, ■-  Babylon  ttHb:  hath  fallen  (Eng.  «  shall  fall), 

40 


314  VERBS. 

the  graven  images  131^  he  hath  broken  (shall  break)  unto  the 
ground." 
Ch.  liii.  4,  &c.  "  Surely  he  hath  borne  our  griefs,  carried  our 
sorrows ;  we  did  esteem  him  ;  with  his  stripes  we  have  been 
healed  ;    the  Lord  hath  laid  on  him ;    he  was  oppressed," 
&c. 
John  iii.  13.  "  No  man  ccvu^e^ijKev  hath  ascended,"  for  ecmQTjrs- 
rect  shall  ascend. 
,    Ch.  V.  24.  uvetQeQuKev  "hath  passed  from  death  to  life,"  not 
spiritual  but  eternal,  as  appears  from  the  connexion.    Erasm. 
Vatab.  Zeger. 

Macknight.    Glass,  ib. 
Ch.  XV.  6.     "  If  a  man  abide  not  in  me,  e^A^j^jj— xee^  e^upctySti, 

he  has  been  cast  forth,  and  withered  ;"  "  is"  Eng.  shall  be. 
Rom.  viii.  10.  "  Whom  he  justified,  them  also  £^o|«c-e  he  glori- 
fied," will  glorify. 

890.  The  future  tense  is  sometimes  put  to  express 
the  sense  of  the  present,  both  in  the  Hebrew,  from 
necessity,  and  in  the  Greek,  from  following  its  idiom. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  49. 

Gen.  ii.  10.  "  From  thence  T^B'  it  shall  be  (was)  parted." 

Num.  xviii.  7.  jn^,  "  I  will  give  (I  give)  your  priest's  office 

unto  you. 
Psal.  i.  2.  "  In  his  law  HJn"  shall  (doth)  he  meditate." 
Luke  xxiii.  46.  "  Into  thy  hands  ^upet6i}<rof^ott  will  I  commend 

my  spirit,"  do  I ;  but  Trotpxrihi/.eci,  7rctp»ri6nfAi,  are  found  in 

several  MSS.     Mill,  and  Griesb.  in  loc. 

891.  The  future  is  sometimes,  also,  used  in  the  sig- 
nification of  the  past. 

Exod.  XV.  5.  "  The  depths  WD3^  shall  cover,"  "  have  covered." 

Eng. 
Num  xxiii.  13.  nxnn  "Thou  shalt  see,"  Eng.  and  some  inter- 
preters J  but  others,  "hast  seen,"  which  the  sense  requires. 


VERBS.  315 

Judg   ii.  1.  nSjTK,  "  I  will  make  you  to  go  out  of  Egypt," 

"  have  made,'*  Eng. 
Ch.  V.  8.  mT,  "  they  shall  chuse  new  gods,"  "  chose,"  Eng. 
2  Sam.  xii.  31.  ri'^^r  p\  "  And  thus  shall  he  do  unto  all  the 

cities,"— "did  he,"  Eng. 

892.  The  future  of  the  indicative  is  often  used  in 
the  sense  of  the  imperative. 

In  ail  negative  precepts,  particularly  of  the  decalogue. 

893.  On  the  other  hand,  the  imperative  is  often 
put  for  the  future  of  the  indicative  ;  attention  to  which 

is  of  great  importance  for  the  interpretation  of  many 
predictions. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  43. 

Gen.  XX.  7.  "  He  shall  pray  for  thee,  n^ni  and  live  thou,"  thou 
shalt  live.     So  ch.  xlii.  18. 

Ch.  xlv.  18.  "  I  will  give  you  the  good  of  the  land,  )hDi<)  and 

eat  ye  the  fat  of  the  land,"  ye  shall  eat. 
Deut.  xxxii.  50.  rnDi,  "  And  die  in  the  mount,  ^dnhi  and  be 

gathered  unto  thy  people,"  thou  shalt  die  and  be  gathered. — 

death  is  not  the  subject  of  a  command. 
Psal.  xxxvii.  27.      "  Depart  from  evil,  and  do  good,  psyi  and 

dwell  for  evermore,"  thou  shalt  dwell. — it  is  not  a  command, 

but  a  promise. 
Prov.  iii.  4.  x:tfDl,  «  And  find  favour,"  "  so  shalt  thou  find," 

Eng.  it  is  a  promise,  v.  3. 
Ch.  iv.  4.  "  Keep  my  commandments,  n'Hi  and  (thou  shalt) 

live." 
Isa.  liv.  14.  'pr\\  "  Be  thou  (thou  shalt  be)  far  from  oppres- 
sion." 
John  ii.  19.  Ayrtfcre,  "  Destroy  this  temple."  ye  shall  destroy  j 

it  is  not  a  command,  but  a  prediction. 


316  VERBS. 

894.  Both  the  future  of  the  indicative,*  and  the  im- 
perative,* have  sometimes  the  force  of  the  optative 
mode,  which  is  wanting  in  the  Hebrew  language. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  45. 
*  Job  iii.  3.  "  The  day  n3X^  shall  perish/*  may  it  perish.     So  also 
in  the  following  verbs. 
Psal.  Ixx.  2,  3,  4.  11^3',  &c.  "They  shall  be  ashamed,  confound- 
ed, turned  back,"  &c. — "  let  them  be,'  Eng. 

2   Psal.  xlv.  4.  "In  thy  majesty  nSv  ride  prosperously,''  it  is  a 
wish. 

Often  in  prayers,  as  in  all  the  petitions  of  the  Lord's  prayer. 

895.  The  imperative,  as  in  all  languages,  often 
signifies,  in  Scripture,  not  command,  but  merely  per- 
mission. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  43. 

2  Sam.  xviii.  23.  Joab  says  yn  "  run,"  not  commanding,  for 
had  forbidden  him,  v.  20,  22.  but  permitting  him  on  his 
importunity,  v.   19,  22,  23. 

2  Kings  ii.  17.  Elisha  says  inSiy  "send,'*  not  a  command, 
for  he  had  dissuaded  and  forbidden  them,  v.  16,  18,  but  mere 
permission. 

1  Kings  xxii.  22.  p  my^l  NV,  "  Go  forth  and  do  so,"  not  a  com- 
mand to  deceive*  but  permission. 

Mat.  viii.  32.  Jesus  says  to  the  demons,  wV^yere,  "go,"  he  only 
permitted  them,  Luke  viii.  32. 

896.  The  imperative  has  sometimes  the  force  of  the 
subjunctive  mode  with  a  conjunction;  expressing,  not 
a  prediction  of  what  shall  be,  but  a  supposition  of  what 
may  or  may  not  be. 

Glass,  ib. 

Num.  xxiv.  21.  ax'l,  "  Put  thy  nest  in  a  rock,"  though  thou 
put,  &c.  "  nevertheless  the  Kenites  shall  be  wasted,"  v.  22. 


VERBS.  317 

Nah.  iii.  15.     "Make  thyself  many  as  the  canker-worm," 

though  tliou  make. 
Luke  X.  28.  T«t«  ynnei,  "this  do,  and  thou  shalt  live,"  if  thou 

do  this,  thou  shalt  live. 
Eph.  IV.  ^26.     Opyt^ea-Be,  "  be  ye  angry,  and  sin  not,"  if,  though 

ye  be  angry,  sin  not. 

897.  The  infinitive  mode,  which,  in  all  languages, 
has  a  great  analogy  to  substantive  nouns,  is  often,  in 
the  Hebrew  language,  used  as  a  noun. 

1  Kings  viii.  52.  "  Hearken  unto  them  aK")p  Sd3  (in  omni 
orare  eorum)  in  all  their  prayers." 

1  Chron.  xvi.  36.  "  All  the  people  said.  Amen.  mn*S  SSm  (et 
laudare  Jehovae)  Eng.  "  and  praised  the  Lord  ;"  but  it  is 
singular,'  and  has  the  preposition — "  and  praise  to  the 
Lord." 

2  Chron.  iii.  3.  noin  nSxi,  Eng.  "  JVow  these  are  the  things 
wherein  Solomon  was  instructed.''^  This  is  a  strange  ellipsis, 
and  gives  an  unwarranted  sense. — '*  Of  these  (viz.  dimen- 
sions) was  Solomon's  foundation,"  Jun. — "  This  was  Solo- 
mon's foundation — the  length,"  &c.  which  is  simpler. 

Psal.  ci.  3.  "  I  hate  ry\ov  (facere)  the  deed  ("work,"  Eng.)  of 

them  that  turn  aside." 
Luke  vii.  21    "  Unto  many  that  were  blind  he  gave  to  /3Af;re/» 

to  see,"  "  sight,"  Eng. 
Heb.  ii.  15.    "Them  that  were  Sioc  a-«KTo$  ra  ^jjv,  through  all 

their  lifetime,"  Eng. 

898.  When  the  infinitive  is  said  to  be  used  in  the 
sense  of  the  preterite,  or  the  future,  it  is  observable, 
that  it  generally  differs  from  these  tenses  only  in  the 
vowel  points ;  and,  therefore,  though  the  usage  may 
be  real,  it  is  not  in  all  instances  indisputable. 


318  VERBS. 

899.  When  the  infinitive  appears  to  be  put  for  the 
imperative,  it  may,  sometimes,  be  accounted  for  in  the 
same  manner  ;^  but,  as  the  usage  likewise  takes  place 
in  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament,  to  which  that  ac- 
count is  not  applicable,  the  usage  is,  undoubtedly, 
real,  and  is  accounted  for,  either  by  an  enallage  of 
these  two  modes,  or  by  an  ellipsis  of  an  imperative 
verb  governing  the  infinitive.^ 

1  Exod.  XX.  8.     Deut.  v.  12. 

*  Mat  V.  39      "  I  say  unto  you  t^oi  uvrta-rTivcn  not  to  resist" — 

"resist  not,"  Eng.  Glass,  ib.  or  supply  B-eM,  f^e/^vrio-o,  Knatchb. 

So  V.  34.     Luke  is.  3 
Luke  xxii.  42.       Ei  /38Ae<  ^rxpeveyKetv.     Some  MvSS.  have  Tretps- 

yeyjce,  7roc,pevsyx,cii.  ^<«^£V£7«Ji,but  they  are  false  readings — "let 

it  pass,"  Eng.     Mark  xiv,  36. — or  supply,  B-e>^e,  Knatchb. 

or  governed  by  jS«Ae<,  "be  pleased  to  let  it  pass,"  Grot. 

900.  Participles  being  in  their  form  exactly  similar 
to  adjective  nouns,  though  implying  time,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  they  should  sometimes  drop  this  implica- 
tion, and  be  used  in  the  signification  of  adjectives,^  or 
that,  like  them,  they  should  be  put  for  substantives.^ 

Glass,  ib.  t.  4.  c.  2.    Macknight,  ib. 

1  Jer.  xxiii.  2.     "  Thus  saith  the  Lord  against  rDy)in  a^;?nn 

the  pastors  that  feed  my  people." 
Mark   vi     14.     "John  o  fidTrrt^Mv   baptising,"   for   ^oiTcriG-rm, 
"  baptist." 

2  Psal.  xvii.  14.    "  Whose  belly  thou  iillest  with  jiD:;  "  hidden," 

what  men  are  at  pains  to  hide.     Eng.  supplies  "  treasure." 
Heb.  i.   6.      OiKHiJcer/i  "inhabited" — 'world.'      So   ch.   ii.   5. 
Rev.  xii.  9. 

901.  In  Scripture,  the  present  participle  has  some- 
times the  signification  of  the  present  of  the  indicative, 
which  is  wanting  in  the  Hebrew  language. 


VERBS.  319 

Glass,  ib.  c.  4. 

Exod.  ii.  14.     "HDX  "speaking  (speakest.    Eng.  "intendest") 
thou  to  kill  me?" 

Exod.  xxiii.  20.     "  Behold  1  vhv  sending  (send)  an  angel  be- 
fore thee." 

Josh.  i.  2«    "  The  land  which  I  \n)}  giving  (give)  to  them." 

Rom.  V.  1 1.  "  But  we  also  xuvxeiftt-evot,  boasting,  glorying  (boast, 
glory.    Eng.  "joy")  in  God." 

902.  Active  verbs  of  the  third  person,  sometimes 
refer  not  to  any  preceding  noun,  but  have  the  force  of 
impersonals,  or  are  to  be  interpreted  passively. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  23.     Chandler,  Life  of  David,  b.  4.  c  9. 

Gen.  xvi.  14.     "  Wherefore  X"^p  (literally)  he  called  the  well 

Beerlahairoi ;"   but  it  is  Hagar  who  speaks  ;  "  was  called," 

Eng, 

Exod.  X.  21.  "That  there  may  be  darkness,  B?D'l  and  he  shall 
feel,"  any  one  may  feel,  or  "  may  be  felt."     Eng. 

1  Sam.  xxiii.  22.  "  For  "IDX  he  told  me  that  he  dealeth  very 
subtlely."  Some,  David  himself  formerly ;  but  this  is  for- 
ced ; — "  it  is  told  me,"  Eng.  or  '  I  am  told.' 

Luke  xii.  20.  "This  niijht  ecTrxtram  they  shall  require  thy 
soul" — "  shall  be  required,"  Eng. 

903.  Verbs  of  the  infinitive  active,  have,  sometimes, 
a  passive  signification  ;^  and,  in  consequence  of  this,  it 
may  be  doubtful,  in  particular  instances,  whether  they 
ought  to  be  explained  actively  or  passively,  and  must 
be  determined  by  the  sense.^ 

^  Exod.  ix.  16.  13D  |j,*dS  (literally)  propter  enarrare — "that  my 
name  may  be  declared,''^  Eng.  or  'for  the  declaration,  cele- 
bration, of  my  name.' 
Psal.  xlii.  3.     nDND  in  dicere — "  while  f/iev  say,"  Eng.  Mn  its 
being  said,  while  it  is  said,' 


320  VERBS. 

Psal.  Ixvi.  10.  "  Thou  hast  tried  us"  «]1VD  secundum  conflare, 
— "  as  silver  is  tried,"*'  Eng.  or  *  according  to  the  trial  ;*— 
but,  without  the  vowels,  the  verb  is  preterite. 

*  Gen.  iv.  26.    "  Then  it  was  begun  x'^pS  to  call  upon  the  name 

of  the  Lord" — "  men  began  to  call,"  Eng.  or  "  the  name  be- 
gan to  be  called  upon,"  Pagn.  Drus.  or,  '  they  began  to  be 
called  by  the  name.* 

Psal.  li.  5.  "That  thou  mightest  be  clear  ']t2Q\if^  in  judi- 
care  tuo,"  "  when  thou  judgest,"  Eng.  "  when  thou  art 
judged."  It  is  quoted  Rom.  iii.  4.  ev  rco  xpivea-Scct  re,  "when 
thou  art  judged,"  Eng — But,  it  may  be  the  middle  voice,  in 
which  sense  it  suits  the  Psalm,  where  ']'iDn3  is  active,  "  when 
thou  speakest,-'  referring  to  2  Sam.  vii.  12,  &c.  In  like 
manner,  "  judgest,"  referring  to  ch.  xii.  9,  &c.     Taylor. 

904.  Active  verbs  have  sometimes  the  signification 
of  the  passive  of  their  correlatives  ;^  and  passive  verbs, 
that  of  the  active  of  their  correlatives.^ 

1  Mark  iv.  21-     "  Doth  a  candle  [e^xerxt)  come  ?" — ^is  it  brought? 
Ch.  ix.  29.     "  This  kind  can  e^ex&eiv  come  forth"~be  cast  out. 

*  Eccl.  iv.   IS.     "  An  old  and  foolish  king,  who  knoweth  not 

nninS  to  be  admonished' — to  receive  admonition. 

905.  Passive  verbs  have  sometime  an  active,*  and 
sometimes  a  neuter  signification  f  whence  it  becomes 
doubtful,  in  particular  texts,  in  what  manner  they 
should  be  understood.^ 

Glass,  ib.  c.  24,  25. 
1  Judg.  xi.  25.     "  Did  he  fight,"  onSj  Niphal. 

Zech.  ix.  9.     "  He  is  just  ;;i'n3l  and  saved" — "  having  salva- 
tion," Eng. — "  saving  himself,"  marg.— "  saviour,"  Glass. 

Acts  xviii.   14.     hSsKToct  "  received."     Ch.  xiii.  47.  arerxXreii. 

»  Exod.  XV.  6.     "  By  thy  right  hand  m«j  thou  art  magnified," 
made  great — "  art  great,  powerful." 


VERBS.  S21 

^     Mat.    V.     49.        Tov    B-eXovrot   utto    th    Soiyei(rec>}-6eti    ft.*)  ctTTOCT ptK^ti^f 

"  From  him  that  would  borrow  of  the^^,  turn  not  thou  away," 
Eng.  neuter — "  be  not  turned  away,''  synonymous — "  him 
that  would  borrow  from  thee,  turn  not  away,"  Sym- 
mach,  in  Psal.  cxxxii.  10.     This  last  is  simpler. 

906.  In  the  New  Testament,  the  Greek  verbs  are 
sometimes  used  in  the  signfication  of  the  Hebrew  con- 
jugations, particularly  Hiphil  ;^  and  hence,  it  may  be- 
come ambiguous,  whether  they  ought  to  be  thus  under- 
stood, or  not,  in  particular  texts.^ 

Glass,  ib.  c.  27. 
*  Mat.  V.  45.  AvfltTfAAe/,  li^ex^h  "  He  rises  his  sun,  and  rains," 
causeth  to  rise,  to  rain,  Eng. 

1  Cor.  iii.  6.  "  But  God  isv^xvev  increased,"  gave  the  increase, 
Eng. 

Heb.  iv.  8.     "  If  Jesus  KxreTrxveev  had  rested,"  given  them  rest^ 
Eng. 
'  Luke  xi.  53.     "  They  began  uTroo-rof^ttn^eif  eturov  to  speak  from 
memory,  or  off-hand  ;"  but  this   sense    is  not  suitable  ; — 
or  "  to   silence ;"    but  this   also   is   not  suitable  alone  :— • 
"  to    cause  speak   off-hand,    provoke^  to  speak,  that  they 
might  silence  him.** 
Glass,  ib.      Erasm.      Vatab.     Zeger.     Casaub.      Grot. 
Beza. 

2  Cor.  ii.  14.  "  Thanks  to  God**  Bptetfi^svtfn  ^-f^ca — neut.  '  to 
triumph,*  but  not  suitable.  Active,  '  to  triumph  over,  lead 
as  captives,' Col.  ii.    13.     (Erasm.  Zeger.  Drus.) — 'lead  in 

\  triumph,'  as  victorious  soldiers ;-— or  Hiphil,  'to  cause  to 
triumph,'  Eng.     Similar  verbs  are  thus  used  in  70.     1  Sam. 
viii.  22.  xii.  1.  xv.  35. 
1  Cor.  viii.  3.     "  If  any  man  love  God,  the  same  tyvaa-rut*'  pass. 
"  is  known,"  Eng.  approved,  loved  ; — or  Hoph.  '  is  made  to 
know,  taught  by  him,'  opposed  to  false  knowledge,  v.  1,  2w 
Macknight,  Ess.  4.  and  in  loc. 
41 


S22  PARTICLES. 


SECT.  VI. 

The  Usage  of  Particles, 

907.  All  other  words  may,  properly  enough,  be 
comprehended  under  the  name  of  Particles ;  and  are 
reducible  to  the  article — pronouns — adverbs — prepo- 
sitions— and  conjunctions. 

Glass.     Nold.    Macknight,  Ess.    4.  and  Suppl.     Hoogeveen. 

908.  1.  Both  the  Hebrew  and  the  Greek  languages 
have  an  article  :  but  in  both,  it  is  often  used  when  it 
has  no  special  force  or  emphasis. 

Deut.  viii.  8.  '*  Man  doth  not  live  by  anbn  the  bread  only ;" 
quoted  Mat.  iv.  4.  xqio)  "  bread." 

909.  But,  the  article  is  often  used  with  a  pecular 
force,  and  that  in  different  ways.  It  is  sometimes  used 
for  ascertaining  a  precise  individual,  formerly  mention- 
ed. 

Gen.  xxiv.  50.  "^mn  "  the  thing,"  the  proposal  made  by  the 
servant,  "  proceedeth  from  the  Lord  " 

Exod.  IX.  S7.  "  1  have  sinned  aj;3n  the  (this)  time,"  by  the 
refusal  just  now  given. 

Mat.  i.  17.  '*  All  ui  yevext,  the  generations,"  not,  that  had  al- 
ready passed,  for  some  are  omitted,  but,  that  had  been  enu- 
merated. 

John  vi.  10.  "  There  was  much  grass  ev  to*  toto}  in  f/ie  place,*' 
viz.  already  mentioned,  v.  1,  or,  where  they  then  were. 

Acts  ix.  17.  "  Ananias  entered  et^  tjjk  oiKixt  into  the  house,'* 
to  which  he  was  formerly  directed,  v.  1 1. 


PARTICLES.  323 

910.  In  analogy  ^o  this,  the  article,  when  used 
alone,  has  sometimes  the  force  of  the  demonstrative 
pronoun. 

*0  3e  ec7P6Kpt6eiq  etTm^  often. 

Mat.  ii.  5.  'o<  h  sittov  uvra>.  "they  said  unto  him." 

Mat.  iv.  20.     '0<,  ''  they  tollowed  him." 

911.  The  article  sometimes  marks  eminence  in  that 
to  which  it  is  annexed. 

Isa.  vii.  14.  "Behold  nnSl^n  the  Virgin  (not  any  virgin,  but 
one  remarkab'e  virgin)  shall  conceive."  So  when  quoted 
Mat.  i.  23.    *H  ^otpSevoi 

912.  The  article  is  sometimes  a  mark  of  univer- 
sality, intimating  that  the  species  in  general  is  intend- 
ed, or  any  individual  of  it  indefinitely. 

Mat.  xii.  8.  'o  y/e«  tcv  ccv^paTTov,    Some,  "Jesus  Christ,"  Zeger. 

Camer.     But,  "  any  man  ;"  so  determined  by  the  argument 

in  Mark  ii.  27,  28.  Grot,     So  perhaps  also  v.  32. 

Ch.  xviii.  17.     "  Let  him  be  to  thee  as  o  tOuKoq^  any  heathen.*' 

Mark  i.  44.     "  Shew  thyself  toj  <f^£/  to  "any  priest"  or  "the 

priests.*'     So  Matt  viii.  4.     Luke  v.  14. 

913.  The  article  prefixed  to  a  participle  present, 
often  makes  it  to  denote  a  character,  an  employment, 
a  habit  of  life,  or  a  general  state  of  being ;  and  that, 
not  only  absolutely,  or  relative  to  the  present  time,  but 
also,  with  respect  to  the  past,  or  to  the  future. 

Taylor  on  Rom.  ii.  1. 

Mat.  iv.  3.*0  5re<^«5»y,  *  he  whose  character,  custom,  employ- 
ment it  is  to  tempt.' 
Ch.  viii.  33      'O/  /Sao-jcavres,  ^  the  keepers'  by  employment. 
Ch.  xiii.  3.  o  a-'retpcov,  'a  sower'  by  profession. 


324  PARTICLES. 

Mark  vi.  14.  •  /3«9rr/^<yv,  '  the  baptizer,*  by  profession,  em- 
ployment. 

John  xviii.  37.  o  an  nc  rtji  xMOsixq^  '  habitually,  by  disposition* 
of  the  truth.' 

Ch.  iii.  15,  36.  o  TrtrTevuv^  '  the  believer.'  v.  20.  ©  TrpxTTuv^ 
'  the  doer.' 

Rom.  ii.  1.  0  Kpivav^  '  judger,'  assuming  the  character  and  au- 
thority of  a  judge. 

Matt.  ii.  20.     01  ^^T«vTf5,  '  they  who  employed  themselves  in 

,  seeking,' — or, 'they  who  had  formerly  sought,"  the  child's 
life. 

Acts  XV.  21.  "  Moses  of  old  time  hath  r«5  Ki)civ<rcrovTUi  them 
that*'  are  in  use,  or  whose  business  it  is  to  "  preach  him." 

914.  There  being  so  great  variety  in  the  usage  of 
the  article,  its  precise  force  must  be,  in  some  cases, 
doubtful,  determinable  only  by  the  sense  and  connex- 
ion ;  and  arguments  which  rest  merely  on  the  insertion, 
or  the  omission  of  it,  must  be,  in  some  degree,  pre- 
carious. 

Luke  xviii.  8.  "  But  when  the  Son  of  Man  cometh,  otpu,  evpti- 
c£i  Tijv  7n(rTiv  ETTt  TJ55  y'<j5 ;  Some,  'coming  to  judgment;' 
others  better,  '  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.'  Some,  yv 
'  the  earth  ;'  others  better, '  the  land'  of  Judea.  Some,  TrtG-rtf 
'faith'  simply  or  in  general,  Eng. — others,  'the  faith  of  it' 
viz.  his  coming,  of  which  he  had  so  often  warned  the  Jews ; 
others,  'such  faith  as  before  described,'  v.  1 — 6.  2  Thess. 
ii.  3,  8.  *0  etv^^MTTe^  ri}<  uf4.ctpTfet<} —  «  iioq  rtsi  ct-'KaXnaq — o  «v«/ttof. 
Papists  conclude  from  the  article,  that  one  individual  is 
meant,  not  a  succession  of  Popes.  Bellarm. — But  the  arti- 
cle is  often  used,  when  a  whole  class,  either  simultaneous 
or  successive,  is  intended,  as  o  uv6^a>7roi^  Mat.  xii.  35. 
Mark  ii.  27.  Luke  iv.  4.  2  Tim.  iii.  )7.  and  often  with 
other  nouns,  as  Rom.  i.  17-  Kph.  vi.  16.  Tit.  i.  7.  Heb. 
ix.  7.  1  Pet.  iv.  18.  1  John  ii.  18.  1  John  ii.  18.  2  John  7. 
Rev.  xxii.  11.  Here,  it  seems  cmphatical,  and  means,  emi- 
nent in  the  class. 


PARTICLES.  325 

915.  2.  As  to  Pronouns  ;  definite  pronouns  have 
sometimes  an  indefinite  signification. 

1  Sam.  xvii.  12.     "  David  was  the  son  of  nin  ^n"i3K  tJ^^K  that 

(an)  Ephrathite."     Sjr.  Arab.  Luth. 
1  Kings  xix.  5.     ''  Behold  n?  that  (an)  angel  touched  him." 

Elijah.     Eng. 

916.  Demonstrative  pronouns  have  sometimes  the 
signification  of  the  relative,  either  only/  or  together 
with  their  own.* 

*  Psal.  ix.  15.     <'  In  the  pit  HT  which  they  hid.*'     Acts  viii.  26. 

X.  36. 

*  Exod.  xiii.    I.     "Because  of  r?  that  which  the  Lord  did.'* 

Eng.     Psal.  civ.  8.     cxlii.  3.     Isa.  Ixiii.  1. 
Job  xiii,  9.     NiH'D,  ''  Who  is  he  that  will  plead  with  me  ?" 
Ch.  xvii.  3.  xli.  1.     Isa.  I.  9. 

917.  The  relative  pronoun  has  sometimes  the  signi- 
fication of  the  demonstrative. 

Acts  xiii.  31.    *05  u<p6i3  (for  ouroi)  "Who  (he)  was  seen  many 

days."  Eng. 
Ch.  xxiv.  8.     "  Commanding  his  accusers  to  come,  tu^*  oJ 

("  of  whom,"  Eng.  i.  e.  accusers,  wrong)  for  t»t»,  "  of  him 

mayest  thou  know." 
Heb.   V.   7.    'Oi   ("  who,"  Eng.   i.   e.   M elchizedec.   wrong.) 

"  He  (Christ,  v.  5.)  in  the  days  of  his  flesh,"  &c. 
Acts  viii.  27.     Col.  i.  18.     1  Pet.  iv.  5.  ii.  8. 

918.  The  relative  pronoun  has  sometimes  the  signi- 
fication of  a  copulative  conjunction. 

Glass,  ib.  t.  7.  can.  1. 

Eccl.  V.  18.  na^  i\ffi<  310,  "  good  and  comely,"  Eng.  and  other 
Vers. 

Jer.  xvi.  13.  \m  kS  1l!?«,  ''Jnd  I  will  not  show,"  Syr.  "Where," 
Eng.  Nold. 


326  PARTICLES. 

919.  The  relative  pronoun  has  sometimes  the  signi- 
fication of  a  conditional  conjunction. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  5.  Nold. 

Lev.  iv.  22.  ii'i^fi  ^K'«,  "  if  a  ruler  hath  sinned,"  Onk.  70* 
Syr.  Arab.  v.  3,  27.  "  When,'*  Eng.  Pagn.  Luth.  Trein. 
Vatab. 

Deut.  xi.  27.  lyDiyn  iiyx,  «  if  ye  obey,"  (CDX  v.  28.  2  Chron. 
vi.  22.)  Eng.  Onk.  70.  Syr.  Vulg.  &c. 

1  Kings  viii.  31.  W^i<  XDH^  "ityx,  "  If  any  man  trespass,''  Eng. 
But  in  such  instances,  it  may  perhaps  retain  its  own  signifi- 
cation, the  antecedent  being  either  omitted  or  transposed. 

920.  The  relative  pronoun  has  sometimes  the  signi- 
fication of  the  final/  the  illative/  or  the  causal  con- 
junctions.^ 

Glass,  ib.  can.  20.    Nold. 
1  Gen  xi.  7.  "  That  they  may  not  understand."  Onk.  Syr.  70. 
Vulg.  Pagn.  Loth.  Trem.  Eng. 
Deut.  iv.  40.  "  That  it  may  go  well  with  thee."    So  explained 
by  IJ^dS,  "  that  thou  may  est  prolong  thy  days.'*  Onk.  Syr.  70. 
Vulg  Pagn.  Luth  Eng. 
Gen.  xxiv.  3.    Exod.  xx.  26.      Deut.  iv.  10.     vi.  3.     xi.  10. 
-      xxxii.  45.  Josh.  iii.  7.     Ruth  iii.  1.     1  Sam,  ii.  23.     2  Chron. 
i.  11.    ii.  5.  xviii.  15.    Ezraii.  63.    Neh.  ii.  5,  7,  8.    vii.  65. 
viii.  14,  15.    PsaL  clxiv.  12.  Eccl.  v.  4.  vii.  21.  Isa.  Ixv.  16. 
Jer.  xlii.  14.     Dan.  i.  8. 
»  Psal.  xcv.  11.  "^lyx  "  To  whom  T  sware;'*  but,  "therefore! 

sware,"  Pagn.  Diod.  it  is  the  conclusion  from  v.  8,  9,  10. 
3  Deut.  iii.  24.  «  For  what  God  is  there,"  Onk.  70.  Syr.  Vulg. 
Pagn.  Luth.  Eng. 
Job.  viii,  14.  iSdd  Dy  lU'X,  "  Whose  hope  shall  be  cut  off,*'  Eng. 
but  it  suppresses  the  pronoun  i.    "  For  his  hope,'*  Chald  70. 
Luth. 
Isa.  xix.  25.  «  fVhom  the  Lord  shall  bless,*'  Eng.  but  it  sup- 
presses )  in  )D^2.  "  For  the  Lord  shall  bless  him.'' 


PARTICLES.  327 

Zech.  i.  15.  "  For  T  was  but  a  little  displeased,**  Eng. 
Josh.  xxii.  3«.  "  Bfcaiifie  ye  have  not  committed  this  trespass," 
70.  Chald.  Syr.  Vulg.  Eng. 

1  Sam.  XX.  42.  xxv.  26.  2  Sim.  xiv.  22.  and  many  other 
texts  referred  to  in  Nold.  sig.  i\  13. 

921.  3.  Abverbs  are  reduced  into  many  different 
classes,  which  belongs  to  grammar ;  but,  in  all  of 
them,  difficulties,  especially  ambiguities,  often  occur. 

922.  Adverbs  which  properly  signify  rest  in  a  place, 
sometimes  denote  motion  to  a  place. 

Glass.  1.  3.  t.  5.  can.  4. 

Deut.  i.  37".     "  Thou  also  shalt  not  go  QKf  thither,^'  Eng. 

2  Kings  xix.  32.  "  Nor  shoot  an  arrow  ow  t/iere,"  Eng.  "  hith- 
er/' or,  "  thither." 

Judg.  xviii.  3.    1  Sam.  ii.  14.  ix.  6.  x.  5.  2  Sam.  ii.  2.  xvii.  18. 

2  Kings  ii.  21.  vi.  9.  Psal.  cxxsix.  10.     Isa.  xxxvii.  33,  Ivii.  7. 

Jer.  xxii.  11.  Ezek.  xlvii.  9. 
Mat  ii.  22.     "  He  was  afraid  to  go  bkh  thither,'^  Eng. 
Mat.  xvii.  20.  xxiv.  28.    Luke  xvii.  37.  xxi.  2.    John  xviii.  3. 

Rom.  XV.  24. 

923.  Abverbs  of  place  have  sometimes  the  significa- 
tion of  adverbs  of  time. 

Glass,  ib. 

Eccl.  iii.  17.  "  There  is  a  time  UDVf  there,''  Eng.  but,  there  is 
here  no  reference  to  place.  *  then,'  viz.  when  God  shall 
judge. 

Psal.  xxxvi.  12.  «  ITiere,"  Eng.  rather,  »  Then  are  the  workers 
of  iniquity  fallen." 

Hos.  ii.  15.  "I  will  give  her  vineyards  ai^D  from  thence," 
Eng.  i.  e.  from  the  wilderness.  Or,  *  from  that  time,  im- 
mediately. 


328  PARTICLES. 

924.  Adverbs  of  time  expressing  perpetuity,  some- 
times denote  only  frequency,  or  regularity  at  stated 
times,  or  a  considerable  length  of  duration. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  6, 

Exod.  xxvii.  20.  "To  cause  the  lamp  toburn*>  ?:n  always,*'  not 
strictly,  for  only  "  from  evening  to  morning,"  v.  21.  ch.  xxx. 
8.  Lev.  xxiv.  3.      1  Sam.  iii.  3. 

Exod.  xxviii.  30-  "  Aaron  shall  bear  the  judgment  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  on  his  heart  TDH  always  ;  but  only  "  when  he 
went  in  before  the  Lord,"  as  appears  from  the  preceding 
clause. 

1  Kings  X.  8.  "Which  stand  TDr\  continually  before  thee," 
frequently,  at  the  proper  times  of  attendance. 

Luke  xviii.  1.  "  That  men  should  pray  ^ctvTore  always,"  very 
frequently,  with  perseverance. 

V.  5.  et(}  TfXoi,  "  continually,*'  frequently. 

Ch.  xxiv.  53.  ^tecTTccvToi,  "continually,"  at  the  stated  times, 
often.     So  John  xviii.  20.  1  Thess  v.  16,  17. 

925.  Advel*bs  denoting  a  termination  of  time,  are, 
notwithstanding,  often  intended,  not  to  intimate  a  ter- 
mination, but  to  signify  perpetuity. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  12. 

Deut.  xxiv.  6.  "No  man  knew  of  his  sepulchre  unto  this  dny,^^ 
i.  e.  *'  ever,"  it  was  not  discovered  afterwards. 

1  Sam.  XV.  35.  "  Samuel  came  no  more  until  the  day  of  his 
death,"  never  came. 

2  v^am.  vi.  2^.  *'  Michael  had  no  children  until  the  day  of  her 
'  death." 

Isa.  xxii.  14.  *'  This  iniquity  shall  not  be  purged  till  ye  die." 

never. 
Mat.  i.  25,  "  He  knew  her  not  ewioC  till  she  had  brought  forth," 

&c.  never  knew  her. 

Rom.  V.  13.  cc^pi.  "  until  the  law,  sin  was  in  the  world,"  then, 
as  well  as  after. 


PARTICLES.  329 

926.  The  negation  of  continuance  often  does  not 
imply  prior  existence,  but  is  equivalent  to  a  simple 
negation  of  all  existence. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  1 1. 

Acts  xiii.   34.  MjjjcfT/,  <' JVo  more  to  return  to   corruption," 

*  never  to  see  corruption.'    Psal.  xvi.  10.  Acts  ii.  i29.  xiii.  ST. 
Rom.  vi.  9.  "  Death  has  ««  ert  no  longer  dominion  over  him," 

*no  dominion,'  for  never  had,  Heb.  ii.  14,  Acts  ii.  24. 
Rom.  vii.  IT.  "  It  is  no  more  hk  eri,  I  that  do  it,*'  *not  I.*     So 

V.  20. 

927.  Ad  verbs,"*  expressing  a  definite  time  or  num- 
ber, often  mean  only  an  indefinite. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  5,  14. 

"  Yesterday,*'  for  any  past  time.  2  Sam.  xv.  20.  "  Thou 
earnest  but  Siron  yesterday/^  lately. 

2  Kings  ix.  26.  *l#  have  seen  l^'DX  yesterday y  the  blood  of  Na- 
both,"  lately. 

Job  viii.  9.  "  We  are  Snn  of  yesterday f**  lately  born. 

Isa.  XXX.  33,  "  Tophet  is  ordained  ^lDnJ<D  from  yesterday," 
«  of  old,"  Eng.  Mat.  xxv.  41. 

Gen.  xxxi.  2.  "  It  was  not  to  him  as  Oia^W  SlDH  yesterday 
and  the  day  before,**  formerly.  So,  v.  5. 

•*  To-day,"  for  the  present  time.  Deut.  xxvii.  9.  Qvn  "  Ihis 
day  thou  art  become  the  people  of  the  Lord."    *Now  art.* 

"To-morrow,"  for  any  future  time.  Gen.  xxx.  33.  "  "^o  shall 
my  righteousness  answer  for  me  "inrs  to-morrow,^^ ''  in  time 
to  come,"  Kng. 

Exod.  xiii.  14.  "  When  thy  son  asketh  thee  "PID  to-morrow,^* 
"  in  time  to  come,"  Eng. 

Luke  xiii.  32.  "  1  do  cures  o-jj/tcfoov  »«/  uvptov  to-day  and  to  mor- 
row,"^* i.  e.  at  present,  and  for  a  short  time  ;  x«/  rsj  r^/rsj  "on 
the  taird"  i«  e.  soon  after,  "  1  shall  be  perfected." — "  Seven 
times,"  for,  often,     i-sal.  xii.  6.  and  other  texts. 
42 


330  PARTICLES. 

928.  Adverbs  of  number  are  sometimes  used,  not  to 
express  number,  but  to  denote  some  other  conception. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  14. 

*'  Once,"  certainly,  immutably,  perfectly.    Psal.  Ixxxix.  35.  nnx 

"  Once  have  I  sworn,"  immutably,  v.  33.  34. 
"  First,"  not  in  order,  or  time,  but '  chiefly.'  Rom.  i.  8. 
"  First  I  give  thanks  to  God,"  chiefly,  especially.    Rom.  iii.  2. 

"  Chiefly  because  that,"  &c.  Eng. 

929.  Adverbs  of  doubting  sometimes  do  not  express 
uncertainty,  but  rather  hope,  accompanied  with  de- 
sire ;  and,  in  some  instances,  implying  a  condition  on 
which  the  event  is  suspended,  or  a  difliculty  in  the 
thing. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  25.    Nold. 

Gen.  xvi.  2.  'SlJ«,  "  It  may  be  that  I  may  obtain  children  by 

her."     It  expresses  both  her  desire  and  hope. 
Josh.  xiv.  12.  "SlJs*,  "  If  so  be  the  Lord  be  with  me,  then  I  shall 

drive  them  out,"  Eng.  Literally,  *  Perhaps  the  Lord  (will 

be)  with  me,  and  I  shall  drive,  &c.     He  was  confident  of 

it,  V.  9. 
1  Sam.  vi.  5.  "  Peradventure  he  will  lighten  his  hand,  might 

expect  it  on  the  condition  prescribed. 
Gen.  xxxii.  20.    Exod.  xxxii.  30.    1  Sam.  ix.  6.    2  Sam.  xvi.  12. 

2  Kings  xix.  4.    Jer.  xxi.  2.     Amos  v.  15.     Zeph.  ii.  3. 
Gen.  iii.  3.  |3,  "  Lest  ye  die  ;"  it  expresses  not  doubt,  but  may 

be  resolved  into,  *  that  ye  die  not.' 
Ruth  iv.  6.  "  Lest  I  mar  mine  own  inheritance ;"  this  would  be 

the  consequence. 
Gen.  xix.  15,  17.  xxxviii.  23.  xliv.  34.    Num.  xx.  18.  Deut.  vii. 

25.    2  Sam.  i.  20.  and  many  other  texts. 
Acts  viii.  22.  Et  ccpx, ''  If  perhaps  the  thought  maybe  forgiven," 

Eng,  Vulg.  wrong;  it  is  not  an  adverb  of  doubting,  but  here 

either  pleonastical,  or  emphatic. 


PARTICLES.  331 

Phil.  iii.  1 1.  E/  Trag,  "  If  by  any  means  I  might  attain,"  &c.  no 

doubt  of  his  resurrection. 
Rom.  xi.  21.  Mti  5r6>5,  "  Lest  he  spare  not  thee/'  not  doubtful, 

but  certain,  v.  22.     So  1  Cor.  ix.  27.      Gal.  ii.  2.  1   Thess. 

iii.  5. 

930.  Adverbs  of  negation  are  often  used;  only  to 
intimate  comparison,  signifying  preference  of  that 
which  is  affirmed;  to  that  which  seems  to  be  denied. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  22. 

Gen.  xlv.  8.  *  JSTot  you  sent  me  hither,  but  God  ;"  not  so  much 

you  as  God,  rather  God  than  you. 
Exod.  xvi.  8.  "  Your  murmurings  are  not  against  us,  but  against 

the  Lord,"  more  against  him  than  us. 

I  Sam.  viii.  7.  "  They  have  not  rejected  thee,  but  they  have 
rejected  me;"  rather,  *  more  me  than  thee,'  or,  *  not  only 
thee,  but  me.' 

Prov.  viii.  10.  Hos.  vi.  6.    Prov.  xvii.  12.  Jer.  vii.  22.  xxxi.  34. 

Joel  ii.  13.  Amos  v.  25.  Psal.  cxivi.  3. 
Mat.  V.  39.  "  Resist  not  evil,  but  whosoever  shall  smite  thee  on 

the  right  cheek,  turn  to  him  the  other."    Proverbial,  Lam. 

iii.  30.)  *  Do  so,  rather  than  resist  violently.' 
Mat.  vi.  19.  20.  "  Lay  not  up  treasures  upon  earth, — but  lay 

up  treasures  in  heaven  ;"  '  rather,  more  carefully,  in  heaven 

than  on  earth.' 
Mat.  X.  20.  "It  is  not  ye  that  speak  but  the  Spirit  of  your 

Father,"  not  only,  not  so  much,  ye  as  the  Spirit. 
Mark  ix.  37.  "Whosoever  shall  receive  me,  receiveth  not  me, 

but  him  that  sent  me,"  not  only,  not  so  much,  me  as  him. 
Mark  xiii.  11.  Luke  xiv.  12.  John  v.  22,  30,  45-  vi.  27.  xii.  44. 

Acts  v.  4.     1  Cor.  i.  17.  Eph.  vi.  12.     Col.  iii.  2.  1  Thess. 

iv.  8. 

\ 

931.  Adverbs  of  comparison  sometimes  express, 
not  similitude;  but  the  thing  itself;  being  thus  redun- 
dant. 


332  PARTICLES. 

Glass,  ib.  c.  28, 

Num  ?;i.    1.  "The  people  were  JZJ'JJlNnDD  as  complainers," 

"  complained,"  Eng. 
Deut  ix.  10.*'  On  them  were  written  ^33  as  (Eng.  according  to) 

all  the  words,'*  &c.  i.  e.  the  words  themselves. 

Judg.  xiii.  23.  "  Nor  would  njr3  as  at  this  time  have  told  us 

n^^i  as  these  thing.s/*  twice  redundant. 
Obad.  i.  11.  "Thou  wast  as  one  of  them. 
Nell.  vii.  2.  Job  xxiv.  14.  Psal.  cxxii.  3.  Isa.  i.  7.  xiii.  6.  Hos. 

iv.  4. 
Mat.  xiv.  5.  "  They  held  him  as  a  prophet,"  i.  e.  to  be. 
Luke  xxii.  44.  "  His  sweat  was  axret  as  it  were  drops  of  blood." 

Some,*  only,  like  blood,'  Theophyl.     Others, '  real  blood,' 

Jerom. 
John.  i.  14.  Rom.  ix.  52.    1   Cor.   iv.  1.    2  Cor.  ii.  17.  iii.  18. 

Phil.  ii.  1,  2.   Philem.  9.  2  Pet.  i.  3. 

932.  Adverbs  of  similitude  often  denote,  not  equa- 
lity? but  such  an  imperfect  degree  of  resemblance,  or 
analogy,  as  is  pointed  out  by  the  nature  of  the  things 
spoken  of. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  27. 

Mat.  V    48.    "Be  ye  perfect,  aTTrep,  even  as  your  father  in 

heaven  is  perfect."  equality  is  here  impossible.     So  Luke 

vi.  36. 

933.  4.  As  to  Prepositions :  Such  as  properly  de- 
note motion  to  a  place  or  thing  are  sometimes  used  for 
signifying  rest  in  it. 

Glass.  I.  3.  t.  6.  can.  4.    Nold. 

Gen.  xlix.  29.  "  Bury  me  Sk  (to,  into)  in  the  cave." 

1  Kings  viii.  30.  "  Hear  thou  ^x  in  thy  dwelling  place,  Sx  in 

heaven*" 
Mat.  ii.  23.  *'  He  dwelt  £/?  ttoA/v  (into)  in  a  city." 
Mark  i.  9.  "  Was  baptized  by  John  £<$  in  Jordan.** 


PARTICLES.  33^ 

Acts  viii.  23.  "Thou  art  etg  in  the  gall  of  bitterness." 

934.  On  the  other  hand,  prepositions  of  rest  have 
sometimes  the  force  of  those  of  motion. 

Lev.  xvi.  22.  "  He  shall  let  go  the  goat  "i3nD3  in  (into)  the 
wilderness." 

Luke  i.  17.  *'  The  disobedient  sv  in  (unto)  the  wisdom  of  the 
just." 

Luke  vii.  17.  "  This  rumour  went  forth  ev,  in  (into,  through) 

Judea." 
Luke  xxi.  iiiS.     Rom.  i.   23,  24,  25.     1  Thess.  iv.  7.     1  John 

iv.  9. 

935.  Prepositions  primarily  expressive  of  local  mo- 
tion, or  rest,  are  often  used  for  denoting  conceptions  in 
any  way  analogous  to  motion,  or  rest,  and  without  any 
reference  to  place. 

Glass  ib.  can.  5,  6,  8,  9,    Nold. 

1 .  Those  of  motion  to  a  place  signify,  sometimes,  *  concerning,' 

as  a  subject. 
Job  xlii.  8.  "  Ye  have  not  spoken  ^bx  (to)  concerning,  of  me, 

what  is  right." 
Ezek.  xxi.  28.  "  Thus  saith  the  LordjSi^  concerning  the  x\m- 

monites,  and  concerning  their  reproach." 

Luke  xix.  9.  "  Jesus  said  ^r^os  (unto  Eng.)  concerning  him 

Acts  ii.  25.     "  David  speaketh  5<$  (unto)  concerning  him, 

Eng.        , 
Sometimes,  *  on  account  of,  for.' 
Gen.  xxxvii.  35.  "  I  will  go  down  into  the  grave  Sj<  (unto 

70.  Vulg.  Eng  )  on  account  of  my  son,  mourning^*  Onk. 

Syr. 

1  Sam.  iv.  21.  «  She  named  the  child."  &c.  Sx  because  of  the 
ark  of  God  being  taken. 

Mat.  xix.  8.  *'  Moses,  cr^os,  because  of  the  hardness  of  your 
hearts,*'  Eng.  So  Mark  x.  5. 


334  PARTICLES. 

Mat.  vi.  34.  "Take  no  thought  etqfor  to-morrow." 

Mark  i.  38.  "  For  en  revro  therefore  Eng.   (on  account,  for  the 

sake  of  this)  came  I  forth." 
Sometimes,  *  against.' 
Gen.  iv.  8.  "  Cain  rose  up  Sx  against  Abel."  Eng.  Syr.  Vulg. 

Pagn  &c. 
Num.  xxxii.  14.  «  Anger  of  the  Lord  Sn  (Eng.  "  towards") 

against  Israel." 
Judg.  xii  3.  <*  Wherefore  are  ye  come  up  ^Sx  (Eng.  «  unto") 

against  me,  to  fight  against  me  ?" 

1  Sam.  V.   6.  **  The  hand  of  the  Lord  was  heavy  hi^  (Eng. 
"  upon*')  against  Ashdod." 

2  Sam.  xiii.  19.  xiv.  1.  ai4tJ?3N  Sk,  Eng.  *'  unto,  toward,"  or, 
*' against  '*  doubtful. 

Mark  xii   12,  <*  Parable  ^fos  avrov^,  against  them,"  Eng. 
John  X.  35.  iTfas  ows.  Eng.  "  Unto  whom  the  word  of  God  came." 

— «  against  whom,"  Psal  Ixxxii.  2,  5,  7. 
Acts  xi.  2.  "  They  that  were  of  the  circumcision  hex^tvovro  vpog 

etvTov.      Eng.  "  contended   with  him." — "  argued,  cavilled 

against  him,"  Vulg. 
2  Cor  V.  12  "  That  you  may  have  somewhat  :r^«j   rov^  (Eng. 

*'to  answer'^)  them  which  glory."— *' «^aiws*  them,"  &c, 

which  is  simpler. 
2  Prepositions  expressive  of  motion  from  a  place,  sometimes 

denote  derivation  from  an  efficient  cause. 
Gen.  XV.  4.  '*  He  that  shall  come  forth  y^DD  from  thine  own 

bowels." 
Prov.  xiii.  11.  "  Wealth  by  vanity  Snna  shall  be  diminished." 

JJng.  supplies  gotten^  which  is  wrong. 
Mat.  i.  20.  fx,  "from  the  Holy  Spirit,"  as  the  author. 
3.  Prepositions  signifying  motion  through  a  place,  denote  some- 
times *  by,'  or  *  by  means  of 
John  vi.  57.  "I  live  ^icc  by  the  Father— he  shall  live  h^  by  me." 
Heb.  ii.  ^.  "  The  word  spoken  h*  by  angels." 
Sometimes, '  on  account,  for  the  sake  of.' 


PARTICLES.  335 

Rom.  iv.  25.  *' Delivered  3 toe  for  our  offences— raised /ov  our 

justification." 
Sometimes,  *\vith  respect  to,  in  relation  to.' 
Rom.  iii.  25.  Aiec  rtiv  Truptjcriv  (Eng.  for)  "  with  respect  to  the 

remission  (passing  over)  of  sins  which   are  past.'*    Taylor 

and  Macknight  in  loc.     So  ch.  iv.  23.  viii.  10. 
4.  Prepositions  of  rest  have  the  like  variety  of  significations, 

denoting,  sometimes,  *  concerning.' 

1  Sam.  xix.  3.  "  I  will  commune  with  my  father  p  of  (con- 
cerning) thee."  Rom.  xi.  2.     2  Tim.  i.  13. 

Sometimes,  *by.' 

Luke  iv.  1.  "  Was  led  sv  by  the  Spirit,*'  Eng.  it  is  so  explained. 

Mat.  iv.  1.  uTTo. 
Sometimes,  *  with.' 

,Mat.  iii.  11.  Luke  xix.  34.    Mat.  vi.  29.    Eph.  vi.  2, 
Sometimes,  *  on  account  of,  for  the  sake  of.' 
Gen  xxix.   18.     Deut.  xxiv.  16.    Mat.  vi,  7.  xi.  6.     Acts 

vii.  29. 

936.  Some  prepositions  are  used;  both  in  reference 
to  place,  and  to  time. 

Buxt.  Gram.  c.  58. 

937.  5.  With  respect  to  Conjunctions.  The  co- 
pulative conjunction,  sometimes,  does  not  merely  con- 
nect a  thing  with  the  preceding,  but  likewise  indicates 
some  singularity,  or  pre-eminence  in  it. 

Glass.  1.  3.  t.  7.  can.  3. 

Josh.  ii.  1.  "  View  the  land,  and  (especially)  Jericho." 

2  Sam.  ii.  30.    2  Chron.  xxvi.  10,     Neh.  viii.  15.    Mark  iii. 
7.8. 

Mark  xvi.  7.  "  Go,  tell  his  disciples,  and  (especially)  Peter." 
Acts  i.  14.  xxvi.  22.     1  Cor,  ix.  5, 


336  PARTICLES. 

938.  The  copulative  conjunction  has^  sometimes, 
the  force  of  the  relative  pronoun. 

Glass.  1.  3.  t.  2.  can.  15. 

Exod.  X.  25.  "  Thou  must  give  us  sacrifices — iru?;?!  lit.  <*  and 

we  will  sacrifice  ;'*  which  we  may  sacrifice. 
Isa.  xxxix.  6.  "  The  days  come,  KtyJI  and  shall  be  carried  (in 

which)  all  that  is  in  thine  house." 

939.  The  conditional  conjunction  has,  often,  the 
force  of  interrogative^ — of  an  adverb  of  deniaP —  of 
a  causal  conjunction.^ 

Glass,  ib.  can.  6. 
5  Job  vi.  13.     Mat.  xii.  10. 
2  Gen.  xiv.  23.  1  Kings  i.  51.     Mark  viii.  12. 
^  Job  xiv.  5.     Ezek.  xxxv.  6.    Mark  xv.  44.    Johnx.  35.  xiii.S2. 

Acts  iv.  9.  xi.  17.  xxvi.  8,  23.    Rom.  xi.  17.  viii.  31.    1  Tim. 

V.  10.  Heb.  vii.  15.  1  Pet.  i.  17.  1  John  ii.  29. 

940.  Disjunctive  conjunctions  do  not  always  denote 
separation  of  things  opposite,  but,  sometimes,  only  dis- 
tinction of  things  of  the  same  kind,  and,  generally,  so 
as  likewise  to  intimate  their  connexion. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  8. 

Mat.  v.  17.  "  The  law  or  the  prophets." 

1  Cor.  xi.  27.  "  Whosoever  shall  eat  this  bread,  ^  or  drink." 
Hence  Papists  argue,  that  the  bread  alone  is  sufficient.  But 
this  is  groundless,  as  appears  from  the  connexion ;  they  are 
disjoined  to  show  that  they  are  entitled  to  equal  reverence. 

1  Cor.  xii.  13.  "All  baptized  into  one  body,  etrs  whether 
Jews,  eire  or  Gentiles,  or  bond,  or  free,"  i.  e.  *  and,'  all  of 
us  Christians. 

1  Cor.  xiii.  8.     Col.  i.  20.     Gal.  i.  12. 

2  Thess.  ii.  15.  "  Traditions  ene  either  by  word,  or  by  epistle." 
Papists,  that  therefore  they  are  diiferent :  groundless—the 
same,  delivered  in  these  different  manners. 


PARTICLES.  337 

941.  The  causal  conjunction  denotes,  sometimes, 
not  the  cause  of  the  thing  spoken  of,  but  only  the  rea- 
son of  the  conclusion  deduced. 

lb.  can.  17. 

Mat.  xvi.  2.  "  Fair  weather,  for  sky  red" — this  not  the  cause 

of  fair  weather,  but  sign  from  which  they  inferred  it. 
John  X.  26.  "  Ye  believe  not  a  yetp  so-re  for  ye  are  not  of  my 

sheep" — this,  not  the  cause  of  infidelity,  but  its  effect. 

942.  The  other  causal  conjunction  sometimes  de- 
notes, not  the  final  cause,  but  only  the  event, 

lb.  can.  19. 

Exod.  xi.  9.  "  Pharaoh  shall  not  hearken  unto  you,  \V^h  that 

my  wonders  may  be  multiplied" — not  Pharaoh's  design,  but 

the  consequence  of  his  conduct. 
Num.  xxxii.  14.    Deut.   xxix.   19.     Psal.  li.  4.    Jer.  vii.  18. 

xxvii.  15.     Ezek.  xxi.  15.     Amos  ii.  7.     Mat.  xxiii.  34.  John 

ix.  2,  3,  39.     Rom.  i.  20.     1   Cor.  xi.   19.     2  Cor.  iii.  13. 

1  John  ii.  19. 
"  That  it  might  be  fulfilled,"  frequent.    Mat.  xxvii.  35,  John 

XV.  25.  xvii.  12.  xix.  24.  xii.  38. 
It  has  likewise  other  significations  :  "  on  account  of,"  Gen.  xviii. 

24.     Deut.  iii.  26.     Prov.  xvi.  4.      Isa.  Ixvi.  10.  is  explana- 

tivc,  John  XV.  8,  13.  xvi.  7,  32,     «  so  tliat,"  2  Cor.  i.  17.  vii. 

9.    Rev.  viii.  12. 

43 


338  DIFFICULTIES    IN    DETERMINING 


SECT.  VII. 


Difficulties  in  determining  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

943.  There  is,  sometimes,  difficulty  in  determin- 
ing, to  what  class  a  word  belongs,  or,  what  part  of 
speech  it  is,  in  a  particular  passage. 

944.  1.  Words  belonging  to  different  classes,  some- 
times consist  of  the  very  same  letters,  so  that  it  cannot 
be  known,  by  the  mere  inspection  of  them,  in  what 
class  they  should  be  reckoned  in  a  passage.  A  word 
may,  for  any  thing  that  appears  in  the  structure  of  it, 
be — a  noun,  or  a  verb,  or  a  particle^ — one  part  of  a 
noun,  or  of  a  verb,  or  another  part  of  it^ — a  particle 
of  one  species,  or  of  another  species  f  and  the  sense 
Avill  be  diff*erent,  according  as  it  is  taken  for  one  or 
another  :  it  can  be  determined  only  by  the  scope  and 
connexion,  or  by  parallel  places  ;  but,  when  diflferent 
senses  are  consistent  with  these,  it  may  remain  doubtful 
which  ought  to  be  preferred. 

1  Isa.  xiv.  19.  Q'rin  i^nS  ,  _  U'^S  is  regular,  i^nS  in  35  MSS.  of 
which  10  ancient,  and  3  editions  ;  a  noun  signifjini^  "cloth- 
ing, raiment,"  Eng.  "  and  as  the  raiment  of  those  that  are 
slain" — supplement  groundless;  without  it,  abrupt :  or,  the 
participle  preterite  of  1^2^,  "  clothed,  covered."  "  Clothed 
with  the  slain,"  covered  with  the  dead  bodies,  sense.  Lowth. 
in  loc. 

Isa.  xxix.  22.  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord  who  redeemed  Abraham 
2p;?'  ii'^-Sx  ;    h'i<  **to  the  liouse  of  Jacob" — but,  no  address 


THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH*  339 

to  them  :  Eng.  "  concerning  the  house  of  Jacob" — ^bx  God, 
"  the  God  of  the  house  of  Jacob" — common  phrase. — 
Lowth. 

Isa.  xxxiii.  21.  "But  niH'  TIK  DK^ ;  Oiy  adverb,  "there  the 
glorious  Lord  will  be  unto  us  as  a  place  of  broad  rivers,*' 
Eng. — but  asy  name  ;  "  the  glorious  name  of  the  Lord." 
70.  Sjr.  structure.  See  Psal.  xx.  1.  Prov.  xviii.  20. — 
Lowth. 

Isa.  xlviii.  \&.  "From  the  time  that  it  was,"  nnvn.  but  2 
MSS.  Dnrn  *'they  were,"  began  to  exist. — ':x  Diy,  Eng. 
"there  I  am,'*  adverb,  but  a'k^  verb.  "  I  decreed  it."  sense. 
Lowth. 
^  Isa.  xxi.  5.  "X^V*  ^2'^»  ^^^J<>  nniy,  infinitives ;  or,  otherwise 
pointed,  imperatives  singular.  Eng.  in  the  latter  way,  "pre- 
pare the  table,  watch  in  the  watch-tower,  eat,,  drink. "^^ 
Others  in  the  former  way,  infinitives  absolute,  (as  Ezek.  i. 
14)  *•  The  table  is  prepared,  the  watch  is  set,  they  eat, 
they  drink."    Lowth. 

Isa.  xlvii.  3.  QIN  j'JSX  vh\  "  And  I  will  not  meet  (Eng.  sup- 
plies thee  as)  a  man" — obscure ;  but,  with  other  points,  or 
written  fully  y^jax  Hiph,  "  I  will  not  suffer  man  to  inter- 
cede"— plain.     Lowth. 

Isa.  Ivii.  14.  "  He  that  putteth  his  trust  in  me,  shall  possess  the 
land — "IDNI  and  shall  say"  Eng.  :  but  to  be  pointed  as  the 
1st  pers.  fut.  *'and  I  will  say."  God  the  speaker,  for,  "mif 
people"  follows.     Lowth. 

3  Mark  xi.  13.  Cv  ya,o  r^v  xxi^e^  cvKm — cv  either  a  negative 
conjunction,  '*for  it  was  not  the  season  of  figs" — means  not, 
*the  proper  season  of  bearing  figs,'  else  Jesus  could  not  have 
expected  to  find  them ;  and,  it  was  the  season,  near  the 
passover — but,  *the  season  of  gathering,'  (Matth.  xxi.  34.) 
none  taken  off,  therefore  he  justly  expected  to  find  them — 
or,  ocJ  where,  adverb  of  plac€i;  "  for,  w^iej'e  he  was,  it  was 
the  season  of  figs."  Zeger.  Grot.  Lamy.  Knatchb.  Mack- 
night,  vvv  is,  sometimes,  an  adverb  of  time,  sometimes,  an 
adversative,  and  sometimes,  an  illative  conjunction.  Glass^ 
p.  709.  note. 


340  DIFFICULTIES  IN  DETERMINING. 

945.  2.  When  it  is  sufficiently  clear  to  what  class 
a  word  belongs,  considered  simply  in  itself,  there  may 
yet  be  difficulty  in  determining  whether,  in  a  particular 
passage,  it  is  not  used  in  place  of  some  other  part  of 
speech. 

946.  Of  two  substantives  in  the  constructed  state  in 
Hebrew,  or  in  government  in  Greek,  one  is  often  in 
place  of  an  adjective,  and  has  the  signification  of  one. 

Glass.  1.  S.  t.  1.  can.  8. 

947.  Of  two  subtantives  joined  by  a  copulative  con- 
junction, one  has  the  force  of  an  adjective. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  6. 

Gen.  iv.  4.    "Abel  brought  of  the  firstlings  of  his  flock,  and  of 
the  fat  thereof,"  i.  e.  of  the  fattest  firstlings  of  his  flock. 

948.  A  substantive,  governed  by  a  preposition,  has 
often  the  force  of  an  adjective. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  9. 

Isa.  iv.  2.  "  The  branch  of  the  Lord  shall  be  for  beauty  and 
glory,"  i.  e.  beautiful  and  glorious. 

949.  An  adverb,  joined  to  a  substantive,  has  some- 
times the  force  of  an  adjective. 

Glass,  ib. 

Prov.  iii.  25.  "  Be  not  afraid  a«ni3  nnSD  of  fear  suddenly," 
i.  e.  of  sudden  fear. 

950.  An  abstract,  put  for  a  concrete,  often  supplies 
the  place  of  an  adjective. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  7. 

Gen.  xlvi.  34.    "Every  shepherd  is  an  abomination,"   i,  e. 
abominable. 


THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH.  341 

951    A   conjunction,   especially  the  copulative,  is 
sometimes  put  for  the  relative  pronoun. 

Glass,  ib.  can.  15. 

Isa.  xxxix.  6.  "  The  days  come,  and  (in  which)  shall  be  carried 
to  Babylon  all  that  is  in  thy  house." 


342  FUNCTUATION* 


CHAP.  III. 


The  Explicatio7i  of  Combinations  of  Words, 


952.  It  is  not  enough  that  we  understand  the  mean- 
ing of  the  separate  words  of  Scripture ;  it  is  their 
combination  into  sentences  that  makes  them  expres- 
sive of  sentiments. 

953.  In  the  combinations  of  words  into  sentences, 
there  are  difficulties  of  several  kinds  : — difficulties  in 
punctuation — in  syntax — in  idiom — in  the  meaning 
of  phrases ; — difficulties  arising  from  the  grammatical 
figures — and  from  the  rhetorical. 


SECT.  I. 


Punctuation. 


954.  As  the  present  punctuation  of  the  Scriptures 
was  not  fixed  by  the  sacred  writers,  it  has  no  autho- 
rity any  further  than  it  is  warranted  by  the  sense  5  it 


PUNCTUATIOJf.  343 

affords  no  argument  for  the  connexion  or  disjunction 
of  words  ;  and  it  is  in  some  instances  wrong,  and  in 
others  doubtful. 

955.  There  is  difficulty^  either  with  regard  to  the 
nature  of  the  points,  or  with  regard  to  their  place  : 
the  former  affects  the  sense  of  a  clause  or  sentence 
taken  by  itself;  the  latter  affects  the  connexion  of 
one  with  another. 

956.  It  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  point,  whether 
a  sentence  should  be  read  affirmatively,  or  interroga- 
tively; and,  according  to  the  one  or  the  other,  the 
sense  will  be  even  contrary. 

957.  Some  texts  are  generally  read  affirmatively^ 
which  ought  to  have  a  point  of  interrogation. 

Gen.  iv.  13.  "  My  punishment  is  greater  than  I  can  bear."— 
"  mine  iniquity  is  greater  than  that  it  can  be  forgiven." 
marg.  70 — "Is  mine  iniquity  greater  than?"  &c.  Wall, 
connexion. 

Gen.  iv.  £3,  24.  "  I  have  slain  a  man  to  my  wounding,  and  a 
young  man  to  my  hurt." — "  Have  1  slain,"  &c. — I  have  not. 
Onk.  Menoch.  sense. 

Mark  ix.  22,  23,  24.  The  father  said,  « If  thou  canst  do  any 
thing,"  &C.  Jesus  said  unto  him,  to  ei  ^wccrxt  Tria-revTett, 
vctvTu,  Svvctrct  TO)  TTta-revovrt, — Eng.  **  If  thou  canst  believe, 
all  things  are  possible,"  &c. — to  omitted.— ra  et  ^wxc-ui ; 
TnTTsvTui,  K,  T,  A.  « If  tliou  canst  ?  Believe."  &c.  con^ 
nexion. 

Knatchb. 

John  V.  37,  38.  "  Ye  have  neither  heard  his  voice  at  any  time, 
nor  seen  his  shape  ;  and  ye  have  not  his  word  abiding  in 
you."  former  clause  not  true,  unconnected — "  Have  ye  nev- 
er at  any  time  heard  ?  &c.  (alluding  to  his  baptism)  yet  ye 
have  not  his  word,"  &c. 


S44  PUNCTUATION. 

Macknight. 
John  xii.  27.  "  What  shall  T  say  ?   Father  deliver  me  from  this 
hour/'  unsuitable,  there  should  be  a  point  of  interrogation. 
"  No."  «  But  for  this  cause,"  &c.  v.  28. 
Zeger.  Clar.  Grot.  Wall. 
1  Cor.  vii.  23.  "  Ye  are  bought  with  a  price ;    be  not  the  ser- 
vants of  men.*'  unconnected. — "  Are  je  bought  with  a  price  ?" 
redeemed  from  slavery  ?  be  not,"  &c.  context. 
Knatchb. 

958.  Some  texts^  again,  are  generally  read  inter- 
rogatively, which  ought  rather  to  be  read  affirma- 
tively. 

1  Cor.  V.  12,  IS,  "  For  what  have  I  to  do  to  judge  them  also  that 
are  without  .'^  ov^i  rov(;  sTia  vf^sig  xpivere ;  do  not  ye  judge 
them  that  are  within  ?"  not  consistent  with  itself,  or  with 
scope. — ovxc  'f'ovg  BTM  t»!*f/5  K^ivsTi,  "  Not  at  all.  Judge  ye 
them  that  are  within ;  but  those  which  are  without,  God 
judgeth ;  and  put  away  from  among  yourselves  that  wicked 
person."     Knatchb.  connexion. 

959.  A  point  wrong  placed  occasions  difficulty,  by 
joining  a  word  to  a  clause,  or  a  clause  to  a  sentence^ 
to  which  it  does  not  belong. 

Numb.  xxi.  14.    Ken.  Diss>  Gen.  165.  John  i.  3,  4.  John  xiii. 

31.     Wh.  Mill.  Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  13.  sect.  1,  2,  3,  4. 
Heb.  iv.  6.    *'  Seeing  then  it  remaineth  that  some  must  enter 

tUereina" — "  Seeing  then,  (it  is  so),  it  remaineth   (follows) 

that  some,"  &c.  Tayl.  key.  234.  sense. 

2  Thess.  ii.  3.  "Let  no  man  deceive  you,  on  exv  f^j^  (?,6ij  tj 
tcTTCTTca-tee.  TTpatov  "^  lit.  "that  if  there  come  not  a  falling 
away  first."  defective.  Eng.  "for  that  day  shall  nut  come, 
except  there  come,"  &c.  sense,  but  not  syntax. — on,  (sup. 
cvec-Tjjjiav  v.  2.  euv  y.ij,  &c.  "  that  it  is  at  hand,  except  there 
come,"  &c.  Knatchb. 

1  Tim.  ii.  6,  7.    1  Cor.  vii.  16,  17,  35.     1  Cor.  xvi.  3.     Grot. 
Locke.     1  Pet.  i.  13. 
Knatchb. 


syNTAX.  345 

960.  It  is  sometimes  doubtful  whether  one  punctu- 
ation or  another  should  be  preferred,  as  either  gives 
a  good  sense. 

John  V.  27,  28.     Mill.  Wh. 

1  Cor.  vii.  29.     "This,  I  saj,, brethren,  on  o  y,cct^o<;  o-wsTrxXu;' 

y«5   TO    XOITTOV    SG-Tf   iVX   KXl    01    S^UVTSq   yVVSClKX^,  6*5     f^.}}     SXOVTJ^   UTl 

— "  because  what  remains  is  but  a  short  time,  that  they  that 
have  wives,  be  as  though  they  had  none."     Mill.  Eras  Grot. 
Knatchb. — ryvjirrotA.ttsvos*  ro  xoitov  ecri  ivct^^^  &c.  "  the  time  is 
short.     It  remaineth  that,"  &c.  Eug.  easier. 
1  Cor.  xi.  21.     Knatchb. 


SECT.  ir. 


Syntax, 


961.  Languages  being  formed  by  accidental  usage 
there  are  many  irregularities  in  the  syntax  of  every 
language^  which  may,  in  particular  instances,  occasion 
difficulty,  even  to  those  who  understand  it  well. 

962.  Every  language  has  some  peculiarities  in  its 
syntax,  which  must  occasion  difficulty  to  those  who  are 
more  accustomed  to  another  language. 

963.  In  the  language  of  scripture,  there  are  diffi- 
culties arising  from  both  these  causes  ;  and,  in  the 
New  Testament,  there  are  difficulties  also,  from  the 
introduction  of  Hebrew  constructions  into  the  Greek 
language. 

44 


346  SYNTAX. 

964.  The  removing  of  difficulties  in  syntax,  from 
the  Scriptures,  both  contributes  to  our  understanding 
the  precise  meaning  of  them,  and  vindicates  their  style 
from  the  imputation  of  solecisms. 

965.  The  principal  means  of  removing  difficulties 
in  syntax,  are — exact  knowledge  of  the  original  lan- 
guages,— the  sense  and  connexion, — texts  where  the 
force  of  the  construction  is  more  determinate, — paral- 
lel places  where  the  same  sense  is  expressed  in  a  differ- 
ent form  of  words, — and  the  usage  of  other  writers,  in 
the  same  or  a  kindred  language. 

966.  As  the  repetition  of  a  noun  denotes,  sometimes 
emphasis,  sometimes  vehemence,  sometimes  continu- 
ance, sometimes  multitude,  and  sometimes  distribution, 
it  may  be  doubtful  which  of  these  is  its  force  in  a  par- 
ticular passage  ;  it  can  be  determined  only  by  the  sense 
and  connexion ;  and  these  cannot  always  determine  it 
with  certainty. 

Deut.  XV.  20.  "  Thou  shalt  follow  pl2f  plS  justice,  justice,"— 
"that  which  is  altogether  just,"  Eng or,  "justice  earnest- 
ly,"— or,  "justice  constantly." 

967.  As,  of  two  nouns  in  the  constructed  state  in 
Hebrew,  or,  in  the  state  of  government  in  the  New 
Testament,  one  is  sometimes  put  for  an  adjective,  and 
sometimes  not;  and,  as  the  governed  noun  may  sig- 
nify the  efficient,  or  the  instrumental  cause,  or  the 
effect,  or  the  material  cause,  or  the  final  cause,  or  the 
subject  or  recipient,  or  the  object,  or  the  adjunct,  of 
the  thing  expressed  by  the  other  noun,  there  must  of- 


SYNTAX.  347 

ten  be  an  ambiguity  which  of  these  relations  is  meant 
to  be  expressed  ;  and  it  should  be  fixed  as  the  sense 
and  scope  require. 

Psal.  Ixxvii.  4.  "  Thou  boldest  the  watches  of  mine  eyesJ^' — 
subst.  "thou  watchest  over  mine  eyes." — adj.  "  keepest 
mine  eyes  watchful  or  waking."  Eng.  connexion. 

Psal.  cl.  1.  "Praise  God  in  the  firmament  of  his  power.'" — if 
the  latter  be  taken  as  an  adj.  "his  powerful  firmament  or 
expanse,"  i.  e.  the  effect  of  his  power. — if  the  former,  "on 
account  of  his  expanded  or  extended  power." 

Gal.  iii.  14.  "  That  we  might  receive  rnv  eTayyeXsxv  rov  Trvev/^x- 
Tfls. — Eng.  "the  promise  of  the  Spirit.*' — adj.  "spiritual 
promise,"  Zeger. — "  promised  spirit,"  Vat.  Grot.  Locke. 

Eph.  iv.  29.  "  No  corrupt  communication,  but  that  which  is 
good,  TTpoi;  eiy.oSofATjv  rt}^  /i^s'««{  — Eng.  *'  to  the  use  of  edifying." 
this  the  original  does  not  bear. — lit.  "  to  the  edifying  of  use 
or  need,^'  i.  e.  "  needful  edification." 

1  Thess.  i.  3.  "  Work  of  faith — labour   of  love — patience  of 
hope," — "  working    faith — laborious    love — patient    hope," 
Drus.  Glass. — or,  "  works,  the  effects  of  faith — labours,  tlie 
effects  of  love — patience,  of  hope." 
Grot. 

Tit.  ii.  13.  "looking  for,"  evupxvsiccv  ry^q  S'o^i:g  rov  fteyotXav  S-sov. — 
adj. ''glorious  appearing."  Eng.  Chrys.  Theophjlact.  Jerora. 
Drus. — or, "  appearing  of  the  glory."  Ambr.  Erasm.  Grot, 
parallel  places. 

968.  A  difficulty  sometimes  arises  from  pronouns 
referring,  not  to  the  nearer^  but  to  the  remoter  ante- 
cedent. 

Psal.  xcix.  6,  7.  "  Moses  and   Aaron  among  his  priests,  and 

Samuel  among  them  that  call  upon  his  name : he  spake 

unto  them  in  the  cloudy  pillar,"  i.  e.  Moses  and  Aaron. 

John  viii.  44.  "  When  he  speaketh  a  lie,  he  speaketh  of  his  own. 


348  SYNTAX. 

for  he  is  a  liar,  Kctt  o  ttxtt^p  AYTOY — referring  to  the  devil, 
**and  his  father,**  Manich. ;  or,  to  -^eva-Tj^i;,  "father  of  /ii?»i," 
the  liar.  Grot. — or,  to  -^ivdoi,  <♦  father  of  UP  Eng.  Erasm. 
Zeger.  Macknight.  right. 

John  vi.  50.  "  This  is  the  bread  which  cometh  down  from  heav- 
en.*'— not  manna,  v.  49  — but  Christ,  v.  48. 

Heb.  xiii.  17.  "Though  he  sought  it  (ccyrjjv)  earnestly  with 
tears." — to  the  nearest  antecedent  f^^ruvoiei, — "  his  own  re- 
pentance." Ciar.  and  perhaps  Eng. — or  "good  effects  of  re- 
pentance" did  not  profit  him.  Zeger.  Cast.  Grot —or,  "his 
father's  repentance."  J  Capel. — or,  to  remoter  antecedent 
£vX6yiuv,  "  his  father^s  blessing."     Glass.  Gen.  xxvii.  34. 

1  John  V.  20.  "  TJiis  is  the  true  God  and  eternal  life."  nearer 
antecedent,  Christ — remoter,  the  Father. 

Mark  iii.  21.    "  For  thej  said,  on  eleo-ryi' — nearest  antecedent, 
JesuSy — he  is  mad,"  Eng.  unbecoming,  no  occasion  given, 
— remoter  antecedent  o;(iAo$,  "  it  is  beside  itself."  sense,  con- 
nexion.    Matth.  xii.  23.  £|<cTi«yro. 
Knatchb.  Macknight. 

969.  A  pronoun  sometimes  refers,  not  to  any  thing 
going  before,  but  to  some  noun  following  after. 

Numb.  xxiv.  17.  "I  shall  see  him  (or,  it)  but  not  now ;  I  shall 
behold  him  (or,  it)  but  not  nigh." — star  and  sceptre. 

Psal,  Ixxxvii.  1.  "  His  (or,  its)  foundation  is  in  the  holy  moun- 
tain."— Zioiiy  V.  2. 

Matth.  xvii.  18.  "Jesus  rebuked  /ii7n."  whom  ?  "the  demon 
came  out  of  him," 

970.  When  two  verbs  are  joined  together  by  a  co- 
pulative, the  former  of  them  is  sometimes  not  de- 
signed to  affirm,  but  has  merely  the  force  of  a  par- 
ticiple. 

Matth.  xi.  25.  "I  thank  i\\tQ — because  thou  hast  hid  these 
things  from  the  wise  and  prudent,  and  hast  revealed  them 
unto  babes," — having  hid. 


IDIOM.  349 


SECT.  in. 


Idiom* 

971.  Every  peculiarity  in  the  structure  ef  a  lan- 
guage, is  called  an  idiom ;  and,  therefore,  many  ob 
servations  which  truly  regard  the  idioms  of  the  Scrip- 
ture language,  have  been  already  made  under  other 
heads ;  but,  there  are  some  observations  which  still  re- 
main to  be  made. 

972.  An  idiom,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  are  now 
to  consider  it,  is,  when  a  number  of  words  combined, 
acquire,  from  arbitrary  usage,  a  sense  which  could  not 
be  collected  from  the  known  meaning  of  the  separate 
words. 

973.  Some  nouns,  when  joined  with,  or  governing, 
other  nouns,  form  an  idiomatical  expression,  in  which 
their  force  is  not  always  the  same. 

974.  t^*^?,  and  other  words,  signifying  a  man,  are 
often  idiomatically  used  in  this  manner,  even  sometimes 
when  a  man  is  not  intended ;  and  that  in  different  sig- 
nifications in  different  instances,  which  must  be  deter- 
mined by  tiie  sense. 

975.  Sometimes,  it  expresses  the  subject,  whose 
adjunct  is  signified  by  the  other  noun,  and  denotes  a 
person  eminent  for  that. 


350  IDIOM. 

1  Sam.  xvi.  18.  nnnSn  Wi^  "  a  man  of  war,"  a  great  warrior — 
and  ixn  ly^X  "  a  man  of  form" — a  beautiful  person. 

2  Sam.  xvi.  7.  iShimei  says,  «  Come  forth  i^^Nl  rj-nin  W'i< 
S;;'S^n  thou  man  of  bloods,  and  thou  man  of  Belial." — 
bloody  and  worthless  man. 

1  Kings,  ii.  26.    Solomon  says  to  Abiathar,  "  thou  art  mD  i^'X 

a  man  of  death." — worthy  of  death. 

Isa.  liii.  3.  nOKDD  is^'X  "  a  man  of  sorrows'' — a  suffering  man. 
Ps.  cxix.  24.  "  Thy  testimonies  are  ^n^f;?  'tS'JX  the  men  of  my 

counsel." — my  counsellors. 

976.  Sometimes^  on  the  contrary,  it  expresses  the 
adjunct,  whose  subject  is  expressed  by  the  other  noun. 

Gen.  ix.  20.  "  Noah  was  HDlxn  W'i^  a  man  of  the  earth." — 
who  cultivated  the  earth. 

977.  Sometimes,  it  denotes  the  efficient  cause,  whose 
effect  or  action  is  expressed  by  the  other  noun. 

Judg.  xii.  2.  Jephthah  says,  "  I  and  my  people  were  y^  \if'i^ 
a  man  of  strife  with  the  children  of  Amnion" — at  strife. 

1  Sam.  xvii.  4.  Goliah  is  called  tZD'jnn  ti?'5<  a  man  of  middles 
— a  champiorij  who  comes  between  the  two  camps  to  chal- 
lenge. 

Isa.  xlvi.  11.  "  I  am  God — calling  a  ravenous  bird  from  the 
east,  'nv;^  \i.f^ii  the  man  of  my  counsel  from  a  far  country" — 
who  executeth  my  counsel. 

978.  Sometimes  again,  it  denotes  the  effect,  or  what 
some  way  or  other  proceeds  from  the  person  expressed 
by  the  other  noun, 

CD'hSx  B^'K  and  uvOpafTog  rev  ^sdv,  "  a  man  of  God" — inspired 
by  God,  or  who  teaches  his  word. 

979.  The  words  Sw,  ^^  lord,  master,'^  and  nhy::i 


IDIOM.  351 

^^  mistress,  "  similarly  construed,  form  an  idiomatical 
expression,  very  like  to  the  former  in  its  powers. 

980.  It  signifies  the  possessor  of  a  thing  expressed 
by  the  other  noun. 

1  Sam.  xxviii.  7.  The  witch  of  Endor  DIX  nS^^  « the  mistress 
of  a  familiar  spirit." 

2  Kings  i.  8.  Ahaziah*s  messengers  describe  the  prophet  as 
"i^'iy  ^7^*3  "  a  lord  of  hair'' — a  hairy  man. 

Prov.  i.  17.  "  In  vain  the  net  is  spread  in  sight  of  any  ^JD  by2 
lord  of  a  wing^^ — bird. 

981.  It  signifies  an  inhabitant  of  the  place^  express- 
ed by  the  other  noun. 

Numb.  xxi.  28.  "  It  hath  consumed — mD3  ^Sj^3  the  lords  of 
the  high  places  of  Aruon" — the  inhabitants. 

982.  It  signifies  the  subject  of  that  quality  or  thing 
which  is  expressed  by  the  other  noun. 

Gen.  xiv.  13.  It  is  said  of  Mamre,  Eshcol,  and  Aner,  "  These 
were  nn3  ^ ^3  lords  of  covenant  with  Abram" — confederate. 

983.  In  analogy  to  this  signification,  it  denotes  a 
person  any  how  addicted  to  what  is  expressed  by  the 
other  noun. 

Gen.  xxxvii.  19.  "Behold  niD^nn  Sr3  this  lord  (or  master)  of 
dreams" — dreamer. 

Prov.  xviii.  9.  "  He  that  is  slothful,  is  brother  n^^i^•D  S>'3S  to 
a  master  of  waste^^ — a  v.'aster.  Eng.  "  a  great  waster,"  as 
if  emphatical,  but  is  not. 

984.  p  and  n^  and  iicg,  and  the  like,  joined  with 
another  noun,  express  almost  any  relation  to  the  thin^ 


35^  IDIOM. 

signified  by  it,  and  are  used  of  inanimate  things,  as 
well  as  of  persons. 

S;?'*?!  ''i^,  "  Sons  of  Belial  or  of  wickedness" — wicked  per- 
sons. S'n  'Jn.  "  sons  of  strength" — strong  men,  'o<  utoi  rov 
<p6fT0i,  "  sons  of  the  light" — thej  who  enjoj  religious  knowl- 
edge. 'Yioi  ccTTiihiccq,  "sons  of  disobedience" — disobedient. 
TtKvct  vTTocicoiiti,  "sons  of  obedience" — obedient.  niD  p,  "a 
son  of  death" — either,  worthy  of  death — or,  appointed  to 
death.  'Y/«$  yeevp;;?,  "  a  son  of  gehenna" — cxrTraXeicci;^  "  of  per- 
dition"— opym,  "  of  wrath" — koctx^a^^  "  of  malediction"— 
f</>55v>j5,  "of  peace" — worthy  of  these.  "Sons  of  a  place" — 
its  inhabitants.  Psal.  cxlix.  2.  "  Sons  of  Zion."  Ezra  ii.  1. 
"  of  the  province."  Isa.  xi.  14.  "  of  the  east."  Gen.  xvii.  1. 
Abram  is  called  "the  son  of  99  years" — 99  years  old. 
Eccl.  xii.  4.  "Daughters  of  music" — sonorous  things. 
Matth.  viii.  12.  "Sons  of  the  kingdom" — heirs  of  it.  Job 
xli.  19.  "  Sons  of  the  bow" — Lam.  iii.  13.  "of  the  quiver"— 
arrows.     Isa.  xxi.  10.     "  Sons  of  the  floor" — corn. 

985.  Some  words,  joined  with  other  words,  are  re- 
dundant, adding  nothing  to  the  sense  of  these,  but 
forming  merely  an  idiomatical  expression. 

tZD^JB,  'TTpotru'xov.  Gen.  i.  2.  "  the  face  of  the  deep."  Gen. 
xxiii.  3.  "  Abraham  stood  up  from  upon  the  face  of  his 
dead."  1  Sam.  xiv.  25.  "  Honey  upon  the  face  of  the 
field."     Luke  xxi.  35.     "  On  the  face  of  the  whole  earth." 

HD,  Gen.  xRii.  7.  "  We  answered  him  according  to  the  mouth 
of  these  words."  Numb.  xxvi.  56.  "  According  to  the 
month  of  the  lot  shall  the  possession  be  divided."  Prov 
xxii.  6.  "  Train  up  a  child  according  to  the  mouth  of  his 
way." 

iZ3iJ'.  "The  name  of  God" — God.  occurs  often.  Rev.  xi.  13. 
"  Were  slain  7000  names  of  men." 

"iDl.  Job.  xli.  12.  "I  will  not  conceal  the  word  of  his  power." 
Psal.  Ixv.  3.    "  Words  of  iniquities  prevail  against  me." 


IDIOM.  353 

"  In  the  midst— in  the  heart,"  means  only  in  or  among.     Gen. 
xlv  6.     "  Famine  in  the  midst  of  the  land."     Matth.  xii.  40. 
"  So  shall  the  "^on  of  man  be  three  days  and  three  nights 
in  the  heart  of  the  earth."  no  proof  of  descent  into  hell. 
Bellarm.  Grot.  Glass.  Macknight. 

986.  The  expression  of  the  superlative,  by  joining 
any  of  the  names  of  God  to  an  adjective,  is  idiomati- 
cal ;  and,  as  this  junction  is  not  always  intended  to 
form  a  superlative,  it  may  sometimes  produce  ambi- 
guity. 

2  Cor.  X.  4.  "  The  weapons  of  our  warfare  are  Swecra  rui  B-eat 
to  the  pulHng  down  of  strong  holds." — idiom,  "very  power- 
ful.'* Glass.  Knatchb.  Macknight. — lit.  "mighty  through 
God."    Eng.  Eras.  Vat.  Cast.  Zeger.  Grot.  Locke.—right. 

2  Cor.  xi.  2.  ZnXat  yetp  vf^ug  S-eov  ^viXa.  lit.  "  I  am  jealous  over 
you  with  a  godly  jealousy."  Eng.  Eras.  Vat.  Grot.  Locke. 
— idiom.  "  I  love  you  with  an  exceeding  zeal."  Knatchb. 
preferable. 

Prov.  XX.  27.  "  The  Spirit  of  man  is  the  candle  (lamp)  of  the, 
Lord.^^ — idiom.  "  a  great  or  piercing  light."  Knatchb.  in 
2  Cor.  X.  4.  connexion,  v.  26. — gives  a  reason  for  what  is 
there  said,  "a  wise  king  scattereth  the  wicked;"  for  the 
spirit  of  a  man  which  he  possesses,  is  very  piercing. 

987.  *)*ID^,  'jT^ooroTOKogj  is  sometimes  used  literally 
for   "  first-born,"  and  sometimes,  idiomatically,    to 
form  a  superlative ;  whence  it  may  become  ambigu- 
ous in  which  of  these  ways  it  is  used  in  a  particular 
text. 
Col.  i.   15.     n^aroTOKog  Trxo-viq  v.riTiui,    "the  first-begotten  of 
every  creature."     Ariaiis,  therefore  one  of  the  creatures. — 
TTparoTOKog,    "  first  begetter."      Eras.   Zeger.    suits  not   the 
scope. — for   rex^ei?   TT^Oy    "begotten   before    all    creation." 
Casaub.   Vat.   Eras.  Zeger. — idiom.    "  prince,    lord,   chief, 
45 


354  IDIOM. 

most  excellent." — "  the  Lord  of  the  whole  creation."    Drus 
Cam.  Macknight,  scope. 

988.  A  noun  repeated,  and  governed  by  different 
prepositions,  forms  an  idiomatical  expression,  denot- 
ing continuance  and  increase. 

Ps.  Ixxxiv.  7.  "  They  go  from  strength  to  strengtl\" — con- 
tinually become  stronger. 

Ps.  clliv.  13.  "  Our  garners  yielding  from  store  to  store." — 
continual  plenty. 

Jer.  ix.  2.  "  They  proceed  from  evil  to  evil." — grow  continually 
worse. 

Rom.  i.  17.  "  The  righteousness  of  God  revealed  from  faith  to 
faith." — from  first  to  last  by  faith,  and  that  a  progressive 
and  improving  faith. 

989.  Idioms  which,  when  translated  into  another 
language,  appear  to  have  in  it  a  peculiar  emphasis, 
have  none  in  the  original,  and  should  not  be  under- 
stood as  having  any. 

990.  An  idiom  of  one  language  translated  literally 
into  another,  would  sometimes  express  the  opposite  of 
the  idea  intended. 

Psal.  cxliii.  2.    "  Every  man  living  shall  not  be  justified."— 

no  man. 
Prov.  xxii.  24.     "  Make  no  friendship  with  ^^N  ^jtd  a  master  of 

anger,^^  i.  e.  angry,  given  to  anger.     In  English,  it  would 

be.  "  one  who  has  the  command  of  his  passion." 
Ch.  xxiii.  2.  "  Put  a  knife  to  tliy  throat,  if  thou  be  WSii  hy2 

a  master  of  appetite,^* — given  to  it.    In  Eng.  the  reverse. 
Gal.  ii.  6.  "  Those  who  seemed  to  be  something." — were  of 

high  reputation. 


PHRASES.  355 

SECT.  IV. 

Phrases. 

991.  There  is  sometimes  a  difficulty  in  phrases, 
not  arising  from  either  the  ambiguity  or  obscurity  of 
a  single  word,  or  from  any  grammatical  irregularity 
in  the  combination  of  the  words^  or  from  idiom. 

992.  A  difficulty  sometimes  arises  from  the  meaning 
of  a  particular  word  being  somewhat  altered  by  the 
words  with  which  it  is  joined^  or  by  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  joined  with  them. 

Acts  xviii.  5.  2YNEIXETO  TO  ONEYMATI  o  nsevAos.— usually 
«  constrain.*' — "  was  pressed  in  spirit,^^  Eng. — "  constrained 
by  the  Holy  Spirit,"  agitated,  carried  out  of  iiimself,  "  to 
testify  to  the  Jews  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ  "  Grot. — "  tes- 
tified with  reluctance,'*  foreseeing  that  it  would  be  in  vain. 
Eras. — a  phrase  taken  altogether,  "  had  an  earnest  mind  to 
testify."     Knatchb.  teneri  desiderio, 

John  i.  16,  •*  Out  of  his  fulness  we  have  received  Kxi  %«^<» 
ocvre  ;t;<«p/'-o5 — cannot  be  grace  in  lieu  of,  or,  instead  of, 
i.  e.  in  return  for  grace. — »»)  omitted  in  Pers.  Arab.  Ethiop. 
versions;  and  avT<  ;^«/}/Te5  supposed  an  interpolation,  Wall, 
without  evidence.—"  even  the  grace  of  the  gospel  instead  of 
that  of  the  law,"  v.  17.  Erasm.  Cast.  Zeger.  Scaliger.— . 
"  ^rsice  on  account  of  the  grace  of  Christ"  Vat.  Grot. — 
"grace  M/}on  (ccvn  for  stti)  grace,"  abundance.  Camer.— 
"  even  grace  for  his  grace."  Clarke.  Campbell,  ambiguity 
.  from  unusualness. 


556  PHRASES. 

993.  A  difficulty  in  a  phrase  sometimes  arises  from 
its  implying  an  allusion  to  some  opinions,  sentiments, 
or  customs. 

Vjhypy  etiatv  the  interval  between  jubilees ^lience  cttmsq  and 

sometimes  utav,  the  whole  duration  of  the  Mosaic  dispensa- 
tion.— hence  the  phrases  utto  rm  xtmm,  not,  "  from  the 
beginning  of  the  ivorld,^^  Eng. — but  "  the  ages,''  during  the 
Mosaic  dispensation. — ^rpo  etimm,  or,  xp^^^^  ettuvtmy  "  before 
the  Jewish  dispensation.*'— «/®w  «Jt«5,  or  o  vw  uiav,  the  Jew- 
ish dispensation, — and  xim  ^eAA&»v,  the  Christian. 
Locke. 

994.  There  are  propositions,  in  which  either  term 
may  be  the  subject  or  predicate,  and  it  may  admit  a 
doubt  which  is  one  or  the  other ;  it  is  to  be  deter- 
mined by  the  sense. 

Isa.  xviii  5.  Ixiii.  8,  9.  Ixv.  22, 23.  Lowth.  Acts  iii.  21.  Glass. 

995.  In  some  cases,  it  is  doubtful  to  what  words  in 
a  sentence,  other  words  in  it  should  be  joined. 

Luke  vii.  30.  Ttiv  ^ovXtjv  rov  ^sov  Tt&erviG-otv  EIS  'EATTOYS— join- 
ed with  iihratrxv^  "  rejected  the  counsel  of  God  against 
themselves,"  Eng.  Vat.  Zeger.  but  unexampled — joined  in 
the  same  way,  f /$  for  ev,  "  within  themselves,"  Eras,  unusual, 
he  is  speaking  of  their  open  conduct. — joined  with  jiovXtjiy 
"  toivvrds  themselves." 
Grot  Knatchb, 


GRAMMATICAL  FIGURES.  357 


SECT.  V. 


The  Grammatical  Figures. 

996.  The  grammatical  figures  are — ellipsis^ — pleon- 
asm,— enallage, — hypallage, — and  metathesis.  These 
take  place  in  all  languages,  but  prevail  most  in  the 
simplest ;  and,  consequently,  are  very  frequent  in  He- 
brew, and  in  the  hellenistical  Greek. 

997.  1.  There  is  sometimes  an  ellipsis  of  some- 
thing which  is  not  at  all  in  the  text,  but  must  be  sup- 
plied by  the  sense, — either  of  a  word  or  of  a  clause. 

998.  As  to  the  former,  there  is  an  ellipsis  of  the  no- 
minative before  the  verb  ;  of  the  accusative  after  it ; 
of  the  adjective  ;  of  the  substantive  ;  of  the  governing 
noun,  especially  when  expressive  of  relation ;  of  the 
verb  in  a  sentence,  particularly  of  the  verb  of  exist- 
ence ;  of  a  verb  governing  the  infinitive ;  of  the  infin- 
itive governed;  of  the  participle;  of  the  article;  of 
the  antecedent,  of  the  relative,  or  of  both  ;  of  adverbs 
of  comparison,  or  similitude  ;  of  some  of  the  preposi- 
tions ;  of  conjunctions:  from  all  which,  obscurity,  or 
ambiguity,  must,  in  some  instances,  arise. 

999.  There  is,  sometimes,  likewise,  a  total  ellipsis 
of  several  words,  of  part  of  a  clause  or  even  of  a  whole 
clause,  which,  however,  the  structure  of  the  sentence, 


358  GRAMMATICAL  I-IGURES. 

or  the  sense,  affords  the  means  of  supplying ;  as,  of 
one  of  the  members  of  connected  propositions,  or  of 
comparisons. 

1000.  2.  There  is  an  ellipsis  of  a  word,  or  clause, 
which  is  not  totally  wanting,  but  may  be  gathered  from 
some  other  part  of  the  discourse. 

1001.  Sometimes,  what  ought  to  be  taken  from 
another  part  of  the  discourse,  is  not  expressed  in  that 
part,  but  only  implied  in  a  conjugate,  a  contrary,  or 
an  analogous  word. 

1002.  Sometimes,  what  ought  to  be  supplied  is  ex- 
pressed, but  in  a  different  member,  either  a  preceding 
or  a  subsequent,  or  partly  in  the  one  and  partly  in 
the  other ;  and  must  be  repeated  from  that,  in  order 
to  complete  the  sense. 

1003.  Pleonasm  is  of  two  kinds  ;  the  first,  when  a 
word  is  wholly  redundant ;  the  second,  when  there 
is  a  repetition,  either  of  the  same  words,  or  of  the 
same  sense,  whether  in  synonymous  expressions,  or 
othervvays. 

1004.  Enallage  often  affects  whole  sentences,  or 
periods ;  as,  when  sometimes  the  second,  and  some- 
times the  third,  person,  is  used  concerning  the  same 
subjects  in  the  same  discourse, — or,  when  the  same 
persons  are  sometimes  spoken  of  in  the  singular,  and 
sometimes  in  the  plural  number, — or,  when  there  is  a 
change  of  tenses,  or  of  cases,  or  of  modes,  in  the 
same  period. 


GRAMMATICAL  FIGURES.  359 

1005.  Hypallage  is  an  inversion  of  words,  by  which 
that  is  attributed  to  one  thing,  which  belongs  not 
properly  to  it^  but  to  another  thing. 

Psal.  cxxxix.  24.    "See  if  there  be  any  wicked  way  in  me."— 

if  I  be  walking  in  any  wicked  way. 
Matth.  viii.  3.    "  His  leprosy  was  cleansed" — he  was  cleansed 

from  it. 

1006.  Metathesis,  or  synchysis,  is  a  transposition 
of  words,  or  clauses,  out  of  their  natural  order. 

1007.  There  is  often  a  transposition  of  single  words, 
which,  if  not  attended  to,  may  occasion  a  mistake  of 
the  sense. 

2  Tim.  ii.  6.  rov  KOTrtavra  yscjpyev  Set  •x^arov  ray  KsepTav  jt^ereC' 
Xetfj^QmstVy  "  the  husbandman  that  laboureth,  must  be  first 
partaker  of  the  fruits,"  Eng — for  KOTTiavroc,  Tr^arov,  "the 
husbandman  first  labouring,  must  be  partaker,'*  &c. 

Rev.  xiii.  8.  *'  Whose  names  are  not  written"  ev  n,  fii^?.cj  rtjg 
^6»};5  Tov  ccflvicv  eT^ayfjL'.Mov  xtto  x.xrot^o?ii;i  xoTf^ov,  in  "  the  book 
of  life  of  the  Lamb  slain  from  the  foundation  of  the  world' 
—tor  yey^xTTToii  otTro  x,x7eiQc?['/}q  x»(r^oy,  *'  written  from  the 
foundation  of  the  world."     Knatchb. 

1008.  Sometimes,  the  subject  and  the  predicate  of 
a  proposition  are  transposed. 

John  iv.  24.     Tlvevf^x  o  ©fo$. 

1  Tim.  vi.  4.  ^o/Ai^-'VTa*  Tro^ic-f^v  eivdt  ttjv  svt^Qsixv — Eno". 
"  Supposing  that  gain  is  godliness" — obscure ;  metath. 
"supposing  that  godliness  is  a  trade  to  gain  by,"  Arab. 
Ethiop.  Knatchb. 

1009.  There  is  a  transposition  of  clauses,  which  oc- 
casions dijSiculty  till  they  be  restored  to  their  natural 


360  KHETORICAL  FIGURES. 

order ;  and,  sometimes,  there  is  a  transposition  of  whole 
sentences  or  periods. 

1010.  Before  we  admit  any  of  the  grammatical  fig- 
ures in  a  passage,  we  should  be  certain  that  we  have 
the  true  reading  ;  for,  in  several  instances,  the  appear- 
ance of  them  arises  only  from  a  false  reading. 

101 1.  We  should  neither  reject  grammatical  figures 
altogether,  nor  recur  to  them  without  necessity  ;  but, 
suppose  them  only  when  the  sense  requires  them,  or 
the  connexion  points  them  out :  and,  admit  only  such 
as  are  agreeable  to  the  nature  of  the  language,  and 
the  usage  of  Scripture,  or  of  other  writers  in  the  lan- 
guage. 


SECT.  VI. 

The  Rhetorical  Figures. 

1012.  Rhetorical  Figures  are  ornaments  of  dis- 
course ;  and  they  are,  likewise,  occasions  of  difficulty. 
In  both  views,  they  are  objects  of  criticism  ;  but,  to  re- 
move the  difficulties  occasioned  by  them,  is  more  mate- 
rial, than  to  point  out  the  beauties  which  they  pro- 
duce. 

1013.  They  are,  either  Tropes,  which  affect  and 
change  the  signification  of  the  words  employed ;  or, 
Figures,  which  only  add  force  or  beauty  to  the  expres- 
sion. 


RHETORICAL  FIGURES.  361 

1014.  1.  The  simplest  tropes  occasion  difficulty, 
chiefly  with  respect  to  the  signification  of  separate 
words,  which  have  been  considered  already  ;  but  there 
are  others,  which  throw  difficulty  into  whole  sentences 
or  periods. 

1015.  If  all  languages  used  the  same  tropes  for  ex- 
pressing the  same  ideas,  there  would  be  in  Scripture 
no  peculiar  difficulties  arising'  from  them  ;  but  it  uses 
quite  a  different  set  of  tropes  from  those  used  by  the 
Greeks,  Romans,  and  moderns  ;  hence,  many  difficul- 
ties, from  an  unusual  dialect. 

1016.  Prosopopeia,  which  is  a  species  of  metaphor, 
is  frequent  in  Scripture,  and  produces  great  vivacity  ; 
but,  sometimes,  also,  occasions  obscurity. 

1017.  Antiphrasis,  or  irony,  turns  words  to  a  signi- 
fication opposite  to  their  proper  m.eaning,  which  the 
sense  or  connexion  points  out. 

Gen.  iii.  22.     "  The  man  is  become  as  one  of  us,  to  know  good 
anp  evil." 

1  Kings  xviii.  27.     "  Cry  aloud  ;    for  he  is  a  god,  either  he  is 
talking,"  &c. 

Ecc.  xi.  9.  "Rejoice,  0  young  man,  in  thy  youth,"  &c. 

1018.  Catachresis  is  a  harshness  or  violence  of  any 
of  the  tropes,  of  which  there  are  several  instances  in 
Scripture. 

2  Sam.  xxiii.  17.     *'  Is  not  this  the  blood  of  the  men  that  went 
in  jeopardy  of  their  lives  ?''  a  harsh  metonymy. 

46 


362  IIHETOUICAL  FIGURES. 

Matth.  xii.  5.  "The  priests  in  the  temple  profane  the  sab- 
bath." 

Mark  vii.  21,  22.  "Out  of  the  heart  proceedeth — an  evil  eye* 
— envy,  of  which  it  is  the  sign. 


1019.  Hyperbole,  whether  consisting  in  bold  tropes/ 
exaggerated  comparisons/  impossible  suppositions/ 
&c.  gives  an  appearance  of  falsehood  ;  to  avoid  which, 
the  sense,  not  the  expression,  must  be  regarded. 

1  "Heaven,"  for  great  height  or  exaltation.  "  Hell,"  great 
depth  or  depression.  "  Rivers  of  oil,"  abundance  of  good 
things.  Gal.  iv.  15.  "Ye  would  have  plucked  out  your 
own  eyes,  and  have  given  them  to  me." 

2  Gen.  xiii.  16.  "I  will  make  thy  seed  as  the  dust  of  the 
earth" — very  numerous.  Job.  vi.  3.  "  Grief  heavier  than 
the  sand  of  the  sea." 

3  Prov.  xxvii.  22.     "  Bray  a  fool  in  ^  mortar,  yet  will  not  his 

foolishness  depart  from  him."  Matth.  xvi.  26.  "  If  he 
shall  gain  the  whole  world,"  &c.  John  xxi.  25,  "The 
world  itself  could  not  contain  the  books  that  should  be 
written." 

1020.  Allegory  is  a  continued  trope,  especially  a 
continued  metaphor,  containing  a  hidden  sense,  differ- 
ent from  what  the  words  imoly,  in  their  plain  and 
literal  signification. 

1021.  It  is  sometimes  doubtful  whether  a  passage 
be  allegorical  or  not. 

History  of  the  Fall.     Sentence  on  the  serpent. 

1022.  When  a  passage  is  known  to  be  allegorical, 
it  is  sometimes  difiicult  to  discover  the  meaning  of  it, 
as  it  generally  introduces  some  degree  of  obscurity. 


RHETORICAL  FIGURES.  363 

1023.  Allegory  sometimes  arises  from  the  continua- 
tion of  the  same  image,  through  the  whole  description 
of  a  subject. 

Prov.  ix.    1 — 6.    "  Wisdom    hath    builded   her   house,"    &c. 
Parables. 

1024.  Sometimes  it  arises  from  describing  the  dif- 
ferent circumstances  of  the  subject,  by  different  images 
in  succession. 

Eccl.  xii.  2,  &c. 

1025.  When  an  allegory  becomes  very  obscure,  it 
is  what  the  Scripture  calls  a  dark  saying,  an  enigma, 
or  an  enigmatical  discourse. 

Sampson's  riddle.     Ezekiel's  descriptions. 

1026.  2.  Figures.  Epizeuxis,  or  the  continued  rep- 
etition of  the  same  word,  or  combination  of  words,  is 
merely  a  figure  expressive  of  earnestness,  and  is  not  a 
foundation  of  argument  for  points  of  doctrine. 

Isa.  vi.  3.    "  Holy,  holy,  holy" — no  argument  for  the  Trinity. 

1027.  Antanaclasis,  by  which  the  same  word  is  used 
in  different  senses  in  the  same  passage,  generally  pro- 
duces some  degree  of  difficulty. 

Matth.  xxvi.  29.     "  I  will  not  drink  of  the  product  of  the  vine, 

(lit.)  till  I  drink  it  new,"  &c. — joys  of  heaven. 
Rom.  ix.  6    "  They  are  not  all  Israel,  whicii  are  of  Israel 
2  Cor.  V.  21.    "  He  hath  made  him  to  be  sin  for  us  (sin-oIFering) 
who  knew  no  sih." 

1038.  Prolepsis,  or  occupation,  anticipating  and  an- 
swering an  objection,  occasions  considerable  difficulty 


364  RHETORICAL  FIGUIIES. 

when  it  is  covert,  removing  the  objection,  without  stat- 
ing it. 

This  figure  frequent  in  Paul's  writings. 

1029.  Permission,  or  yielding  to  a  person  what  he 
claims,  may  occasion  difficulty,  as  that  either  may,  or 
may  not,  truly  belong  to  him. 

1030.  Metastasis  is  transferring  to  one  person  what 
belongs  to  another  ;  as,  speaking  of  one's  self,  or  of  an 
imaginary  person,  what  is  intended  of  another  real 
person.  This  often  occasions  difficulty,  particularly  in 
PauPs  writings,  who,  speaking  in  the  first  person, 
means  sometimes  himself,  sometimes  any  Christian, 
sometimes  a  Jew,  and  sometimes  any  man. 

Locke,  Fref. 

1031.  Proverbs  and  proverbial  phrases,  answering 
to  the  rhetorical  figures  called  ypcofji^at  and  ^^  sententise," 
are  frequent  in  Scripture,  and  generally  attended  with 
some  difficulty. 

1032.  We  must  not  explain  them  strictly,  or  seek 
for  an  application  of  them,  in  all  their  circumstances, 
to  the  subject  on  which  they  are  employed  ;  but,  being 
intended  to  set  that  subject  in  one  striking  point  of  view, 
we  must  discover  what  this  point  is,  by  the  use  of  them 
in  other  places,  or  other  writers,  or  by  the  sense  and 
connexion. 

1033.  Some  of  them  are  sentiments  expressed  in 
proper  terras,  which,  on  account  of  their  force,  beauty, 
or  conciseness,  have  become  general  maxims  5  and  the 


RHETORICAL  FIGURES.  365 

only  difficulty  is  to  determine,  with  what  limitations 
they  must  be  understood  in  a  particular  passage. 

"  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom." 
"  The  disciple  is  not  above  his  master"— cannot  expect  better 
treatment,   Matth.   x.    24.     Luke   vi.   40.    John   xv.  20, — 
Should  not  grudge  the  same  offices,  John  xiii.  16. 

1034.  Some  proverbial  expressions  consist  in  an  ex- 
plicit comparison,  and  become  difficult  only  when  they 
imply  remote  or  obscure  allusions. 

Gen.  X.  9.     "  Even  as  Nimrod,  the   mighty  hunter,  before  tiie 
Lord." 

1035.  But  most  proverbs  are  expressed  tropically, 
in  metaphor,  metonymy,  or  synecdoche  ;  and  this 
manner  of  expression  both  gives  them  their  force  and 
beauty,  and  occasions  such  difficulty  as  naturally  arises 
from  these  tropes. 

1  Sam.  X.  12.  "  Is  Saul  also  among  the  prophets?"  synec. 

Jer.  xxxi.  29.  "  The  fathers  have  eaten  sour  grapes,  and  the 
children's  teeth  are  set  on  edge." 

Deut.  XXV.  4.  "  Thou  slialt  not  muzzle  the  ox  when  he  treadeth 
out  the  corn" — take  care  of  those  who  serve  us. 

Luke  iv.  23.  "  Phj^sician,  heal,  thyself* — more  solicitous  for 
strangers,  than  for  connexions. 

Matth.  vii.  3,  &c.  "  V/ hy  beholdest  thou  the  mote  that  is  in 
thy  brother's  eye,  but  considerest  not  the  beam  that  is  in 
thine  own  eve  V  &c. — blind  to  one's  own  faults,  quick- 
sighted  to  other  men's,  v.  6. 

Matth.  xix.  24.  "  Easier  for  a  camel  to  go  through  the  eye  of 
a  needle,"  &c rare,  difficult,  impossible. 

Matth.  xxiii.  24.   xxiv.  28. 


S6S  DIFFICULTIES  IN  THE 


CHAP.  IV. 


Difficulties  in  the  Circumstances  relating  to  the 
Books  of  Sciiptiire, 


1036.  It  is  not  sufficient,  that  we  understand  the 
several  words  employed,  and  the  manner  of  their  com- 
bination into  sentences  and  propositions  ;  it  is  neces- 
sary, also;  that  we  know  how  sentences  and  propositions 
are  connected  in  periods  and  discourses,  and  be  able 
to  judge  of  a  composition  as  a  whole;  and  in  this, 
there  is  often  considerable  difficult}^,  and  that  of  se- 
veral kinds. 


SECT.  I. 


Difficulties  in  the  Connexion  of  particular  parts. 

1037.  FuoM  difficulties  in  the  combination  of  words^ 
already  considered,  we  pass  naturally  to  such  diffi- 
culties as  regard  the  connexion  of  the  particular 
parts  ;  and  these  arise  from  many  different  causes. 


CONNEXION  OF  PARTICULAR  PARTS.      367 

1038.  1.  There  is  sometimes  a  difficulty  in  deter- 
mining whether  a  word  belongs  to  one  sentence,  or  to 
another,  which  affects  the  connexion  of  different  sen- 
tences or  propositions. 

1039.  The  Scriptures  are,  at  present,  divided  into 
verses  ;  there  were  ancient  divisions  of  the  Scripture 
into  verses,  but  very  different  from  the  present,  which, 
both  in  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New,  is  modern^ 
and  merely  of  human  invention. 

1040.  If  a  verse  always  contains  a  complete  sense, 
this  division  will  direct  us  to  the  real  connexion  of 
Scripture  ;  if  not,  it  will  perplex  tiie  connexion. 

1041.  Whenever,  therefore,  a  difficulty  can  be  re- 
moved, or  the  sense  cleared,  by  altering  the  present 
division  into  verses,  the  alteration  may  be  made  with- 
out scruple. 

1042.  The  verses  are  sometimes  divided,  so  as  to 
separate  words  into  different  sentences,  which  ought 
to  be  joined  in  the  same  sentence. 

Ps.  xcv.  7.  "  The  slieep  of  his  hand,  to-day  if  ye  will  hear  his 
voice;"— but  Heb.  iii.  7,8.  "  To-day,  if  je  will  hear  his 
voice,  harden  not  your  hearts,"  &c. 

John  vii.  21,  22.  E»  tpya^  ^•xaiv^u-cc^  Kcti  TravTSi  S-ccvinx^sTe.  Atee 
TovTo  Meoa-y.i  h^aiKSV  uf^tv  rjjv  Tre^irofi-^v.  &C.  all  editions,  except 

Giiesbach's.     "  Moses    therefore,"   &c.     Wherefore  ?— but 
.^a.vf^x^sTe  Sio,   tovto.     Msarri?,  &c.    "  wonder  because  of  it." 
Theophyl.     Casaub.     Knatchb.     Macknight. 
Gal.  iv.  18,  19.     I.ocke. 


368  DIFFICULTIES  IN  THE 

1043.  This  division,  by  breaking  the  Scripture  into 
small  parts,  often  obstructs  our  attending  to,  or  per- 
ceiving, the  connexion  and  dependence  of  the  several 
sentences,  and  how  one  of  them  is  explained,  or  limit- 
ed^ by  others  with  which  it  is  joined. 

1044.  It  would,  therefore,  be  an  advantage^  that 
the  Scriptures  were  published  without  any  breaks,  and 
the  verses  only  marked  on  the  margin,  for  facility  in 
references  :  at  any  rate,  we  should,  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, read  them  as  if  they  were  thus  printed. 

1045.  2.  Difficulties  in  connexion  often  arise  from 
ambiguity  in  the  signification  of  the  connective  par- 
ticles, w^hich  is  very  great  in  the  Hebrew  language, 
and  in  the  Nev^r  Testament,  where  the  Greek  con- 
junctions are  used  after  the  manner  of  the  Hebrew. 

1046.  The  meaning  affixed  to  a  conjunction  in  any 
passage,  must  be  some  one  of  those  which  it  really  has 
in  the  language. 

1047.  It  is  seldom,  if  ever,  necessary  to  give  a 
conjunction  a  sense,  in  one  passage  of  Scripture,  which 
it  has  not,  in  some  other  passage  of  Scripture  ;  at  least, 
it  is  a  confirmation  of  the  sense  put  upon  it  in  one 
place,  that  it  has  it  in  other  texts. 

1048.  For  fixing  the  signification  of  a  Greek  con- 
junction in  the  New  Testament,  the  usage  of  the  cor- 
respondent Hebrew  one  has  as  great  authority,  as  the 
usage  of  Greek  writers. 


«ONNEXION  OF  PARTICULAR  PARTS.  369 

1049.  Of  the  acknowledged  significations  of  a  con- 
nective particle,  that  is  to  be  adopted  in  a  particular 
passage,  which  best  suits  the  sense  and  scope  of  the 
passage. 

1050.  3.  Difficulty  in  connexion  sometimes  arises 
from  the  interposition  of  parentheses,  on  account  of 
which,  clauses  and  sentences,  which  stand  at  some 
distance,  are,  notwithstanding,  to  be  joined  together. 

Locke,  Pref. 

1051.  It  is  only  by  careful  attention  to  the  sense, 
that  this  kind  of  difficulty  can  be  removed  ;  and,  it  is 
often  not  easy  to  determine  whether  a  parenthesis 
should  be  supposed,  or  not. 

Heb.  vi.  I,  2,  3.  "  Therefore,  leaving  the  principles  of  the 
doctrine  of  Christ,  let  us  go  on  unto  perfection,  not  layino- 
again  the  foundation  of  repentance,"  &c. — "let  us  (not 
laying  again  the  foundation)  go  on  unto  the  perfection  of 
repentance,"  &c.     Knatchb.  connexion  ;  other  texts. 

1052.  4.  Difficulty  in  connexion  sometimes  arises 
from  a  dialogue  being  carried  on  covertly,  without 
marking  the  speakers,  or  distinguishing  what  is  said  by 
each  of  them.  Without  attending  to  this,  what  is 
only  a  plausible  objection,  introduced  in  order  to  be 
confuted,  may  be  mistaken  for  the  sentiment  of  an  in- 
spired writer. 

1053.  Attention  to  the  whole  run  and  scope  of  the 
passage,  as  well  as  to  the  Scripture  phraseology,  and 
to  other  texts,  is  sometimes  necessary,  for  discovering 
and  tracing  out  the  dialogue. 

47 


370  DIFFICULTIES  IN  THE  0 

Ecclesiastcs.    Rom.  iii.  and  iv.    Dialogue  between  Paul  and 

the  unbelieving  Jews.    Locke.     Taylor. 
Isa.   Iii.   13.    liii.  liv.    Dialogue  between   God,   the   prophet, 

and  the  unbelieving  Jews. 
Ps.  xxiv.  XV.  XX,  civ. 

1054.  5.  Difficulties  in  connexion  sometimes  arise 
from  something  being  left  out,  which  we  must  supply, 
in  order  to  perceive  it ;  which  may,  perhaps,  be  sup- 
plied in  different  ways  ;  and,  according  as  it  is  sup- 
plied in  one  way  or  another,  will  make  the  connexion 
appear  different. 

1055.  In  an  argument,  the  principles  or  premises 
are  sometimes  laid  down,  but  the  conclusion  is  left  to 
be  supplied ;  and  yet,  what  follows  has  a  reference  to 
that  conclusion,  and  cannot  be  understood  without 
supplying  it. 

Rom.  iii.  22,  23,  24.  "  All  have  sinned,  and  come  short  of 
the  glory  of  God,  [consequently,  none  can  be  justified  by 
works,  V.  20.]  being  justified  freely  by  his  grace,"  &c.  i.  e. 
but  whoever  is  justified,  whether  Jev»^  or  Gentile,  must  be 
justified,  &c. 

1056.  Sometimes,  one  step  in  an  argument,  or 
cljain  of  reasoning,  is  omitted,  and  must  be  supplied 
either  from  the  tenor  of  the  discourse,  or  by  common 
understanding. 

Rom.  viii.  17.  "  Heirs  of  Christ,  if  we  suffer  with  him" — 
only  on  this  condition  ;  v.  18.  "  for  I  reckon,"  &c. 

1057.  Something  is  often  said,  for  preventing  or 
removing  an  objection,  which  has  not  been  at  all  pro- 
posed ;  and  cannot  be  rightly  understood,  without  our 
conceiving  what  that  objection  was. 


CONNEXION  OF  PARTICULAR  PARTS.     371 

Matth.  ix.  3,  &c.  John  iii.  Discourse  with  Nicodemus.  Grot. 
Macknight.    Rom.  ix.  6,  &c.     Taylor. 

1058.  6.  Difficulty  in  connexion  sometimes  arises 
from  an  abrupt  transition  from  one  subject  to  another^ 
putting  us  in  danger  of  confounding  together^  things 
that  are  really  different. 

Abruptness  in  history — events  different,  even  distant,  often 
joined — owing  to  brevity  and  inartificial  manner. 

Great  abruptness  in  prophecy. 

Isa.  vii.  13,  14,  15.  "Behold!  the  virgin  shall  conceive  and 
bear  a  son,  and  shall  call  his  name  Immanuel ;  milk  and 
honey  shall  he  eat,  till  he  know  to  refuse  the  evil,  and  choose 
the  good." — Messiah;  addressed  to  the  whole  house  of 
David. — V.  16.  "But,  before  this  child  shall  know  to  refuse 
the  evil,  and  choose  the  good,  the  land  that  thou  abhorrest 
shall  be  forsaken  of  both  her  kings" — of  Sshearjashub,  Isaiah's 
son ;  addressed  to  Ahaz. 
Kennicott,  Sermon. 

1059.  7.  Sometimes,  it  is  difficult  to  perceive 
what  purpose  a  sentence  or  member  is  intended  to 
answer ;  as,  whether  it  be  a  point  to  be  illustrated, 
or  a  part  of  the  illustration ;  whether  a  principle 
argued  from,  an  argument  employed,  or  an  inference 
deduced. 

John  viii.  25.  "  What  art  thou  ?  and  Jesus  said  unto  them, 
Tjjv  etpxav  on  Kxi  XxXm  Cu.iv. — 1.  Some  answer  to  their  question 
— "  Even  the  same  that  I  said  unto  you  from  the  beginning," 
Eng. — "The  beginning,  because  (conjunct.)  I  also  speak  unto 
you"— or  "which  (pronoun)  I  also  say  unto  you."  Aug. 
Cyril.  Ambr.  Zeger. — "  First,  (adverb)  I  am  that  which  I 
also  say  unto  you"  viz.  "  the  light  of  the  world,*'  Grot. ;  or 
"  I  am  from  above,"  v.  23.  Erasm.  but  the  verb  is  future. — 
2.  Others,  not  an  answer  to  their  questiou,  but  beginning  of 


OtZ  DIFFICULTIES  IN  THE 

an  admonition  before  answering  it,  connected  with  what  fol- 
lows.— "  First,  because  (conjunct.)  also  I  will  speak  to  you,  I 
have  many  things  to  speak  and  judge  of  concerning  you" — 
or,  "  First,  that  which  (pronoun)  I  also  (over  and  above 
answering  your  question)  will  say  unto  you,  I  have,"  &c. — 
"  Before  answering  your  question,  I  have  many  things  to 
find  fault  with  in  you."  This  he  does,  and  the  answer  is 
given  only,  v.  42.  "  I  proceeded  forth  and  came  from  God,*' 
&c.    Erasm.   Clar.   Knatchb. 

1060.  8.  Sometimes,  it  is  difiicult  to  fix  the  pre- 
cise member  with  which  a  particular  sentence  ought 
to  be  connected. 

1061.  In  some  cases,  the  difficulty  lies  in  reconcil- 
ing the  connexion  to  the  grammatical  construction  of 
the  passage, 

1062.  If  the  sense  absolutely  require  a  particular 
connexion,  it  ought  to  be  admitted,  though  it  cannot 
be  reconciled  to  the  strictness  of  syntax. 

1063.  If  the  sense  admit  different  connexions,  that 
should  be  preferred  which  is  most  agreeable  to  the 
regular  structure  of  the  language,  though  otherwise 
it  would  not  be  the  most  obvious. 

Phil.  i.  30.  T«y  ayroK  e6y<yyot  f;^oyrf5,   "having  the  Same  conflict 

which  ye  saw  in  me"— commonly  connected  with  v^-'v,  v.  29. 

*'  unto  you  it  is  given  to  suffer  for  his  sake" — irregular ; 

enal.  Bez.  Grot. — better  with  7roXtr£ve<r6e  or  on  c-n^Kere,  V.  27. 

"That  ye  stand  fast — having  the  same  conflict."     Knatchb. 
Eph.  ii.  1,  &c.     Locke.     Knatchb. 

1064.  If  one  connexion  seems  to  violate  the  syntax, 
and  another  to  violate  the  sense  almost  equally,  the 
preference  should  be  determined  by  the  general  man- 
ner of  the  writer,  or  of  the  Scripture. 


CONNEXION  OF  PARTICULAR  PARTS.      373 

1065.  In  other  cases,  the  difficulty  of  determining 
with  what  a  particular  part  should  be  connected,  arises 
not  from  any  thing  in  the  grammatical  construction, 
but  regards,  solely,  the  sense. 

1066.  An  argument  sometimes  appears  obscure  or 
difficult,  from  its  not  being  clear  w  hat  is  the  precise 
point  that  it  is  intended  to  prove. 

2  Pp^rir  16 — 19.  "A  more  sure  word  of  prophecy  " — Some, 
for  proving  the  truth  of  the  gospel ;  surer  than  fubles,  v.  16. 
not  than  the  transfiguration,  v.  17.  18.  forced.  Chandler. 
Others,  for  proving  Christ's  coming  to  judgment,  v.  16.  surer 
than  the  transfiguration,  a  directer  proof.  Sherlock  on 
Proph. 

1067.  It  is,  sometimes,  plain  that  a  particular  pas- 
sage is  an  inference,  when  yet  it  is  not  clear  what  is 
the  precise  principle  or  position  from  which  the  infer- 
ence is  drawn. 

Phil.  iii.  15.  "Let  us,  therefore,  as  many  as  be  perfect,  be 
thus  minded,"  &c. — Some,  with  v.  13,  14.  "forgetting 
things  behind — I  press" — do  you  the  same.  Zeger.— -Some, 
with  beginning  v.  13.  "  I  count  not  myself  to  have  appre- 
hended."—Some,  with  v.  10.  iiis  desiring  fellowship  of 
Christ's  sufterings,  Knatchb.— Some,  witii  v.  9.  "  not  having 
my  own  righteousness,  which  is  of  the  law,  but  that  which 
is  through  taith  of  Christ"— Vat.  awkward  in  the  middle  of 
his  account  of  himself ;— rather,  which  gives  the  same  sense, 
with  v.  3.  "we  are  the  circumcision,  which  worship  God  in 
the  spirit,  and  rejoice  in  Christ  Jesus,  and  have  no  confi- 
dence in  the  flesh."     Grot. 

1068.  Sometimes,  there  is  a  difficulty  in  perceiving 
how  an  infcren-je  follows  from,  and  is  supported  by, 
the  principle  or  position  from  wdiich  it  is  deduced. 


374  PLAN  AND  DISTRIBUTION, 


SECT.  II. 


Difficulties  in  Plan  and  Distribution* 

m 

1069.  There  is  often  considerable  difficulty  in 
discovering  the  plan  and  distribution  of  a  book  of 
Scripture. 

1070.  1.  There  is  difficulty  in  distinguishing  what 
are  the  different  members  into  which  a  book  ought 
naturally  to  be  divided. 

1071.  The  Jews  have  long  been  in  use  of  distin- 
guishing the  Old  Testament  into  large  divisions,  or 
sections,  one  of  which  was  read  every  Sabbath  in  the 
synagogues.  The  New  Testament,  also,  was  early 
divided  into  «g(paXa/a,  or  chapters,  probably  with  no 
other  view  than  to  facilitate  references. 

1072.  The  present  division  into  chapters  is  different 
from  these  ;  we  are  apt  to  suppose  that  it  is  made 
according  to  the  sense  ;  but,  this  not  being  the  case, 
it  obstructs  our  perceiving  the  real  plan  of  a  book. 

Gen.  ii.  1,  2,  5.  improperly  separated  from  ch.  i. 
Vulg.  joins  Ps.  ix.  and  x.  and  divides  Ps.  cxlvii  into  two. 
Ps.  xlii.  and  xliii.  originally  one.    Structure.   7  MSS.    Kennic. 
Remarks. 


PLAN  AND  DISTRIBUTION.  375 

Rom.  V.  1.  from  ch.  iv.  Rom.  viii.  1.  from  ch.  vii.  Rom.  xv. 
1 — 13.  from  ch.  xiv.  1  Cor.  iv.  21.  from  ch.  v.  1  Cor.  xi. 
1.  from  ch.  x.  2  Cor.  iv.  1 — 6,  from  ch.  iii.  2  Cor.  v.  1.  from 
ch.  iv.  2  Cor.  vi.  1.  from  ch.  v.  2  Cor.  vii.  1.  from  ch. 
vi.    Eph.  V.  1,2.  from  ch.  iv.    Col.  iii.  1.  from  ch.  ii. 

1073.  The  proper  division  would  be,  into  as  many 
chapters  as  there  are  general  heads  in  the  plan  ;  and 
to  subdivide  these  into  sections,  according  to  the 
several  branches  or  topics  under  each  head. 

1074.  But  it  would  not  be  ahvays  easy  to  make 
such  a  division,  because  it  is  not  easy  to  ascertain,  in 
every  case,  where  one  branch  of  the  division  ends, 
and  another  begins. 

1075.  Many  prophecies,  pronounced  at  different 
times,  and  relating  to  different  events,  follow  one  an- 
other without  any  mark  of  distinction,  and  thus  may 
be  confounded. 

1076.  In  the  argumentative  parts  of  Scripture,  there 
is  great  difficulty  in  distinguishing  and  separating  the 
several  members  of  the  plan,  from  the  author's  not 
writing  in  an  artificial  order,  with  studied  transitions, 
but  sliding  insensibly  from  one  part  of  the  subject  into 
another. 

1077.  The  distribution  can  be  discovered,  only  by 
repeated  and  careful  attention  to  the  whole  book  at 
once,  that  its  general  tenor  and  tendency  may  be  per- 
ceived. 


376  PLAN  AND  DISTRIBUTION. 

1078.  When  a  book  has  one  simple  design,  its  na- 
tural distribution  is,  into  the  several  steps  and  argu- 
ments, by  which  that  design  is  prosecuted. 

1079.  When  a  book  aims  at  different  designs,  each 
design  is  a  separate  subject,  and  the  division  of  it  is 
into  the  several  subjects  proposed. 

1080.  In  dividing  a  book,  the  joining  together 
such  members  as  are  really  distinct ;  and  the  sepa- 
rating one  member  improperly  into  different  branches, 
are  two  extremes  which  ought  equally  to  be  avoided. 

Rom.  Introd.  ch.  i.  1—15.  Part  i.  ch.  i.  16.— ch.  vi.  That 
inankind  can  be  justified  only  by  failh,  not  by  works.  Part 
2.  ch.  vi.  vii.  viii.  Obligation  to  holiness  in  consequence 
of  this  justification.  Part  3.  ch.  ix.  x.  xi.  Vindicates  the 
rejection  of  the  Jews  for  their  unbelief.     Part  4.  ch.  xii.  1. 

XV.  13.    Practical  exhortations.    Concl.  ch.  xv.  14.  to  the 

end. 

Vorst.  Taylor. 

1  Cor.  Introd.  ch.  i.  1—9.  Part  i.  ch.  i.  9. — to  end  of  ch.  vi. 
To  draw  them  off  from  the  false  teacher  or  teachers,  and 
reclaim  them  from  the  faults  into  which  he  had  led  them. 
Part  2.  ch.  vii.  to  end  of  ch.  xv.  Answering  questions  that 
had  been  proposed,  resolving  doubts,  correcting  abuses,  and 
confuting  errors.     Concl.  ch.  xvi. 

Vorst.  Locke. 

2  Cor.  Vindication  of  himself  from  calumnies,  with  a  digres- 
sion ch.  viii.  ix,  on  almsgiving,  occasioned  by  one  of  these. 
ISiembers.  The  several  calumnies  from  which  he  defends 
hi  11}  self. 

Vorst.  Locke. 
Gal.    Introd  — Part   i.      The   true   doctrine   of  justification. 
Part  2.     To  clieck  the  divisions  arising  from  their  disputes 
on  the  subject.     Conclusion. 


PLAN  AND  DISTRIBUTION.  377 

1081.  2.  There  is  difficulty  in  perceiving  in  what 
precise  manner  each  member  of  the  general  plan  is 
prosecuted. 

1082.  The  sacred  writers  do  not  studiously,  or  ar- 
tificially, distinguish  the  several  topics  which  they  em- 
ploy under  each  member. 

1083.  Different  prophecies  are  pursued  and  filled 
up  in  very  different  and  dissimilar  ways. 

1084.  In  the  argumentative  parts  of  Scripture,  ob- 
scurity and  intricacy  sometimes  arise,  from  the  authors' 
not  pursuing  their  arguments  in  the  shortest  and  most 
direct  way  ;  but,  with  a  view  to  the  situation,  preju- 
dices,  and  opinions  of  those   to  whom   they   write. 

1085.  Sometimes  they  carry  on,  at  once,  two  dif- 
ferent designs,  in  consistence  with,  or  subordination 
to,  one  another,  without  attention  to  both  which, 
the  force  and  tendency  of  their  expressions  cannot  be 
perceived. 

Gal.  ch.  i.  and  ii.  to  establish  the  authority  of  his  apostleship — 
and  to  vindicate  himself  from  the  charge  of  sometimes  preach- 


1086.  Sometimes,  they  do  not  content  themselves 
with  what  is  absolutely  necessary  for  their  point,  but 
take  occasion  to  throw  in,  and  interweave,  instruc- 
tions of  a  general  and  important  nature,  which  intro- 
duce some  perplexity  into  their  arguments. 

The  whole  nature  of  the  gospel,  and  all  God's  dealings  with 
mankind,  in  Romans. 

48 


378  SCOPE  AND  DESIGN. 

1087.  It  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the  several  topics 
employed  under  each  head,  to  distinguish  them  pro- 
perly from  one  another,  and  from  every  thing  inci- 
dental and  extraneous,  and  to  view  them  simply  in 
themselves. 

Rom.  Part  1.  Arg.  I.  to  the  end  of  ch.  iii.  from  the  actual 
state  of  both  Jews  and  Gentiles. — Arg.  2.  fro  n.  ch.  iv.  I.  to 
ch.  V.  1 1.  from  the  manner  of  Abraham's  justification —  \rg. 
tS.  from  ch.  v.  12.  to  end  of  the  ch.  from  the  universality  of 
the  effects  of  Adam's  fall. 


SECT.  III. 

Difficulties  in  Scope  and  Design. 

1088.  There  are  often  difficulties  in  discovering  the 
general  scope  and  design  of  a  hook,  many  of  which 
are  analogous  to  those  which  regard  the  plan  and  dis- 
tribution. 

1089.  Our  not  knowing  the  precise  view,  or  all 
the  views  which  the  sacred  historians  had,  occasions 
considerable  difficulty  in  accounting  for  their  selection 
of  materials,  and  their  manner  of  pursuing  their 
narrations. 

Act.     John's  gospel — whether  a  mere  history — controversial, 
or  a  compound  of  both. 

1090.  The  best  way  of  finding  out  the  scope  and 
design  of  an  argumentative  book,  is  to  read  it  all  over 
at  once,  and  several  times. 

Locke. 


THE  OCCASION.  379 

1091.  The  difficulty  of  discovering  their  scope  arises 
from  their  not  being  written  in  an  artificial  and  me- 
thodical manner,  and  from  our  ignorance,  in  some 
instances^  of  the   precise  occasion  of  their  writing. 

1092.  The  design  cannot  be  perceived,  w^ithout 
some  knowledge  of  the  tendency  of  the  several  argu- 
ments ;  and  this  tendency  cannot  be  perceived,  without 
some  knowledge  of  the  design ;  hence,  these  two  mu- 
tually throw  difficulty  upon  each  other,  and,  whatever 
tends  to  clear  up  the  one,  proportionally  gives  light 
to  the  other. 

1093.  The  ascertaining  the  true  sense  of  the  lead- 
ing expressions  in  a  book,  contributes  much  to  the 
discovery  of  its  general  scope. 

Rom.  ambiguity  of  the  leading  expressions. — depend  on  the 
view  in  which  he  considers  Jews  and  Gentiles,  whether 
individually  or  nationally ;  and  this,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
epistle.  Rom.  and  Gal.  different  designs.  Taylor.  Mac- 
knight. — but  so  similar,  that  they  have  been  generally  reck- 
oned the  same. 


SECT.  IV. 


Difficulties  concerning  the  Occasion. 

1094.  All  the  books  of  Scripture  are,  in  some 
sense,  occasional ;  and  ignorance  of  the  occasion  of 
writing  them^  produces  in  all  of  them  some  obscuri- 


3Sp  THE  TIME. 

ties  :  but  the  Epistles  are,  in  the  strictest  sense,  and  in 
the  highest  degree,  occasional ;  and  are  rendered  es- 
pecially obscure  and  difficult,  by  ignorance  of  the  oc- 
casion, whenever  this  ignorance  takes  place. 

1095.  There  is  sometimes  a  difficulty  in  ascertain- 
ing who  were  the  persons  for  whose  use  an  epistle  was 
immediately  intended. 

General  Epistles.     Ephes.  Mill.  Prol.  71.  &c.    Kuster.  Pref. 
Pierce.     Benson.    Lardner.    Macknight.    Marsh's  Michael. 

1G96.  We  have  seldom  explicit  accounts  of  the  oc- 
casion of  a  particular  epistle  ;  it  must  be  collected 
from  general  accounts  of  the  state  of  Christians,  at 
the  time  of  writing  it^  and  from  incidental  hints  in  the 
book  itself. 

1097.  When  there  is  difficulty  in  ascertaining  the 
special  reasons  for  writing  an  epistle,  it  is  still  more 
material,  and  more  obstructs  our  understanding  it. 


SECT.  V. 

Difficulties  concerning  the  Time, 

1098.  There  is  often  considerable  difficulty  in  fix- 
ing the  time  of  writing  a  book  of  Scripture.  It  can 
only  be  collected,  with  different  degrees  of  probabil- 
ity, from  expressions  in  the  book  itself,  from  hints  in 
other  places  of  Scripture,  and  from  a  variety  of  other 
circumstances. 


THE  AUTHORS.  381 

Gal.  A.  61.  Theodoret.  Athanas.  synops.  Oecumen.  Light- 
foot.— A.  57.  or  58.  Capell.  Wits.  Wall.  Pearson.  Mill. 
Locke. — A.  52.  or  53.  Barringt.  misc.  sac.  Benson  Hist. 
B.  3  c.  5.  Lardn.  supp.  c.  1£.  §3.  Michael.  L'enfant. 
Beausobre.— A.  49.  Marsh's  Michael.  Vol.  4.  ch.  11. 
sect.  1. 

1099.  There  is  difficulty  in  arranging  the  Psalms 
in  the  order  of  time. 

1100.  Whenever  prophecies  are  not  delivered  ac- 
cording to  the  order  in  which  they  were  pronounced, 
it  ocqasipns  considerable  obscurity. 


SECT.  VI. 


Difficulties  concerning  the  Authors. 


1101.  There  is  sometimes  difficulty  in  determining 
who  was  the  author  of  a  particular  book  of  Scripture. 

1102.  Ignorance  of  the  author  occasions  .obscurity 
in  a  bookj  chiefly,  when  it  introduces  uncertainty  con- 
cerning the  time  and  the  scope  of  the  book. 

Pentateuch.    Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 


382  IKINDS  OF  COMPOSITION. 

SECT.  VII. 
Difficulties  in  different  Kinds  of  Composition, 

1103.  As  the  Scripture  contains  different  sorts  of 
compositions,  each  sort  has  some  difficulty  peculiar  to 
itself,  and  suitable  to  its  general  nature. 

1104.  There  is,  sometimes,  difficulty  in  determin- 
ing how  far  the  sacred  historians  intended  to  observe, 
or  have  observed  the  chronological  order  of  events ; 
and  yet,  it  is   often  of  importance  to  determine  it. 

1105.  In  the  book  of  Judges,  the  time  of  each 
Judge  is  not  marked ;  it  is  not  specified  whether 
all  the  Judges  were  successive,  or  whether  some  of 
them  were  not  contemporary  ;  and  the  last  six  chap- 
ters contain  events  which  happened  soon  after  Moses' 
death,  and  much  prior  to  those  which  are  recorded  in 
many  preceding  chapters,  perhaps  in  all,  from  chap, 
iii.  1. 

1106.  There  is  sometimes  difficulty  in  determining 
whether  the  Evangelibts  observed  the  order  of  time  ; 
if  any  of  them  did,  which  of  them  it  is ;  if  they  did 
not  in  all  cases,  what  are  the  cases  in  which  they 
deviated. 

1107.  All  the  doctrinal  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  Epistles  ;  and  epistolary  writing  is,  from  its 
very  nature,  liable  to  many  peculiar  diiiiculties,  ex- 


KINDS  OF  COMPOSITION.  383 

cept  to  the  persons  to  whom  a  letter  is  directed,  and 
who  are  acquainted  with  all  circumstances  relating 
to  it. 

1108.  There  are  many  difficulties,  with  regard  to 
the  Hebrew  poetry,  considered  in  every  point  of  view. 

Lowth.     Herder. 

1109.  The  prophecies  have  all  the  same  kinds  of 
difficulties  with  the  other  poetical  books ;  and  they 
have  also  many  peculiar  to  themselves,  on  account  of 
their  being  prophetical. 

1110.  There  is  difficulty  in  ascertaining  and  ex- 
plaining the  several  ways  in  which  the  prophetical  in- 
spiration was  communicated,  as  by  dreams,  visions, 
&c. 

1111.  In  prophecy,  the  figures  and  images  are  more 
complex  than  in  other  poetry  ;  and,  therefore,  there 
is  greater  difficulty  in  analyzing  them. 

1112.  There  is  great  difficulty  in  explaining,  apply- 
ing, and  vindicating  the  signs  or  emblematical  actions, 
by  which  the  prophets  foretell  future  events. 

Ezekiel.    Horslej's  Hosea. 

1113.  When  future  events  are  predicted  in  parabo- 
lical discourses,  this  generally  occasions  some  degree 
of  obscurity. 

Ezek.  xvii.  1.  &c.   xix.  1.  &c. 

1114.  There  is,  sometimes,  difficulty  in  determin- 
ing whether  a  prediction  has  a  single  or  a  double  mean- 
ing. 


384  KINDS  of  COMPOSITIOJS. 

1115.  Wheii  a  prediction  clearly  refel*s  only  to 
one  event,  or,  ivheii  there  is  no  mark  of  its  being  in- 
tended to  signify  more,  it  ought  to  be  explained  only 
of  that  one ;  and  they  err,  who,  in  every  prophecy  of 
the  Messiah,  search  for  a  reference  also  to  some  other 
event. 

Grot.  Cler. 

1116.  In  prophecies  which  have  a  double  sense,  it 
is  sometimes  difficult  to  perceive  what  parts  of  theni 
relate  to  each  of  the  two  events,  what  parts  to  both) 
and  in  what  manner. 

Isa.  vii.  viii.  ix.   ch.  x.  xi.  ch.  xxxiv.  xxxv.    Lowtli  on  Isa.  viii. 
Isa.  xl.    Lowth. 

The  book  of  Job  is  an  instance  of  almost  all  the  difficulties  in 
this  chapter.  Some  reckon  it  very  ancient,  in  the  time  6t 
Moses,  or  before  it.  Chappel.  Michael.  Schult.  Lowth. — 
Others,  very  modern,  during  or  after  the  Kings.  Heath. 
Warburt. — Some,  written  by  Job  or  Elihu,  or  some  con- 
temporary. Dupin.  Hist,  of  Can.  B.  1.  c.  3.  s.  10.  Lowth 
prael.  3i2.  Schult.  praef.  Lightfoot. — Some  translated  by 
Moses.  Patrick,  pref.  Grey,  pref. — Some,  written  by  Moses. 
Huet,  dem.  evan.  pr.  4.  Lowth.  Michael. — or,  by  Solo- 
inon,  or  some  prophet  about  that  time.  Dup.  ib.  Spali- 
heim,  hist.  Job.  c.  16.  Chapp — or,  by  Isaiah,  Codurc. — 
during  the  Babylonian  captivity,  Heath,  Essay. — by  Ezra 
after  the  captivity,  Warburt.  B.  6.  s.  2. — Whether  a  dra- 
matic poem  or  not  ?  Whether  a  real  history,  (Lowth. 
Schult.  Chappel.)  or  an  allegorical  poem  ?  Michael.  War- 
burt. Heath.  IScope — an  example  of  patience,  Schult. 
Grey. — whether  one  so  much  afflicted  could  be  really  pious, 
Lowth. — to  shew  God's  supreme  power  over  the  whole 
creation,  Chappel. — to  oppose  the  Manichean  doctrine, 
Sherlock. — or,  thie  transmigration  of  souls, — to  comfort  the 
Israelites  in  Egypt;  Michael — or,  to  cojnfort  them  during  the 
captivity,  Heath. — on  ceasing  of  an  equal  providence  after 
the  captivity.    Warburt. 


OF  RECONCILING  SCRIPTURE  TO  ITSELF.  385 


CHAP.  V. 


Of  Reconciling  Scripture  to  Itself. 

1117.  When  Scripture  is  compared  with  itself,  one 
passage  has,  sometimes,  the  appearance  of  contradict- 
ing another. 

1118.  There  are  seeming  contradictions,  in  quota- 
tions,— in  historical  passages, — between  predictions 
and  their  accomplishment,  and  in  points  of  doctrine. 


SECT.  I. 

Seeming  Contradictions  in  Quotations. 

1119.  Some  passages  of  Scripture  are  quoted  in 
other  passages  :  particularly,  passages  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament are  quoted  in  the  New  :  and,  in  these,  there  is 
often  an  appearance  of  difference,  or  inconsistence,  be- 
tween the  original  and  the  quotation. 

1120.  The  appearance  of  inconsistence  regards,  ei- 
ther the  words  in  which  the  quotation  is  made, — or 
the  purpose  to  which  it  is  applied. 

1121.  1.  The  former  occurs,  when  the  words  in 
which  the  quotation  is  made,  differ  from  those  of  the 
original,  that  is,  the  Hebrew  text. 

49 


3S6  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

1122.  Several  quotations  of  the  Old  Testament,  by 
the  writers  of  the  New,  are  made  according  to  the  70 
version,  and  that,  when  it  seems  to  differ  from  the 
sense  of  the  Hebrew. 

1123.  To  vindicate  such  quotations,  it  must  be 
shown,  either  that  the  70  version  does  really  express 
the  true  sense  of  the  Hebrew,  as  it  now  stands, — or, 
that  there  is  a  corruption  in  the   one  or  the   other. 

1124.  The  70  version,  copied  in  the  quotations  of 
the  New  Testament,  often  expresses  the  true  sense  of 
the  present  Hebrew,  deducible  from  the  kindred  lan- 
guages, or,  even  from  the  style  of  Scripture,  or  the 
connexion  of  the  passage ;  though  not  the  sense  put 
upon  it  by  modern  translators  and  commentators : 
and  the  appearance  of  contradiction  is  removed  by  a 
just  interpretation  of  the  Hebrew. 

Psal.  civ.  4.  "  Who  maketli  the  winds  his  messengers,  and  the 
flaming  fire  his  ministers." — but  11  b.  i.  7.  trom  70.  "his 
angels  spirits — ministers  a  flame  of  fire."  equally  agreeable 
to  the  words,  and  more  to  the  connexion. 

Isa.  xxviii.  16.  "He  that  believeth  shall  not  make  haste" 
\uU\  En'^.  modern  versions,  But  Rom.  ix.  33.  x.  11. 
and  1  Pet.  it.  6.  "  be  ashamed,-^ — no  corruption  in  the  He- 
brew, Capel.  Grot. — a  real  sense  of  tt'n  in  Arab.  70.  Arab. 
Chald.  Syr. 

Jer.  xxxi.  31,  32,  33,  34.  with  Hob.  viii.  8—12.  "  Which  my 
covenant  they  brake,  although  I  was  an  husband  unto 
them."  Eng. — '' delighted  myself  in  them,"  Chald. — "ruled 
ot-er  them,"  Vulg.— but  Heb.  vi?i.  9.  from  70.  "  and  I  re- 
garded them  not." — no  coriu^itioii,  a  real  sense  of  hy2  in 
Arab.  Syr.  Arab,  connexion. 


IN  QUOTATIONS.  387 

1125.  In  other  instances,  the  seeming  contradiction 
arises  from  a  corruption  in  the  present  Hebrew,  which 
may  be  proved  with  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  evi- 
dence, and  the  contradiction  will  be  removed^  by  re- 
storing the  true  reading. 

Ps.  xvi.  10.  "  Neither  wilt  thou  suffer  thy  saints  to  see  cor- 
ruption," Heb— but,  Acts  ii.  27,  31.  xiii.  35 — 37.  from  the 
70.  *'holy  One.^'  right,  most  MSS.  Keri.  fetepli.  all  ancient 
versions. 

Kennic.  Diss,  et  in  loc. 

Isa.  xxix.  13.  "And  their  fear  toward  me  is  taught  by  the 
precept  of  men.'* — but  Matth.  xv.  8,  9.  Mark  vii.  6,  7.  from 
70.  "  But  in  vain  (inni  corrupted  into  Tim)  they  do  w^or- 
ship  me,  teaching  (hidSd,  not  moSrs)  doctrines,  the  com- 
mandments  of  men." 

Hos.  xiii.  14.  "0  death,  I  will  he  thy  plagues;  O  grave,  I  will 
he  thy  destruction."  Eng. — but,  1  Cor.  xv.  55.  nearly  from 
70.  and  literally,  from  Syr.  "O  death,  where  is  thy  sting; 
O  grave,  where  is  thy  victory  ?*'  Aq.  Syr.  Arab.  H'N  corrupt- 
ed into 'nx.  Kennic.  Diss.  l.p.  513.  Or,  perhaps,  no  quo- 
tation, but  only  an  indirect  allusion. 
Horsley's  Hosea,  note  (W)  on  ch.  xiii. 

Psal.  xl.  6.     "  Mine  ears  hast  thou  bored'* — but,  Heb.  x    5. 
"  A  body  hast  thou  prepared  for  me,"  70.  connexion,  struc- 
ture, nu  TJ«  corrupted  into  a'JTN.  • 
Kennic.  Serm.  not.  33.  Diss   Gen. 

Amos.  ix.  11,  12.  with  Acts  xv.  16,  17.  Med.  Wal.  Ham. 

Amos  V.  26.  with  Acts  vii.  43. 

Habak.  ii.  4.  with  Heb.  x,  38. 

1126.  In  some  instances,  it  is  doubtful  which  of 
these  solutions  is  preferable ;  and  some  quotations 
admit  both  solutions  in   different  parts  of  them. 

Hab.  i.  5.  with  Acts  xiii.  41.  Capel.  Grot.  Bez.  Knatchb. 
Pocock.  Ham. 


38S  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

1127.  It  is  far  from  being  true,  though  it  has  been 
generally  taken  for  granted,  that  all  the  quotations  in 
the  New  Testament,  are  made  according  to  the  70 
version  ;  most  of  them  are  not  accurately  copied  from 
it ;  many  of  them  are  not  at  all  taken  from  it,  but 
translated  by  the  writer  himself  immediately  from  the 
Hebrews 

Marsh's  Michael,  ch.  5.  sect.  3. 

1128.  The  writers  of  the  New  Testament  seem  to 
have  been  so  careful  to  give  the  true  sense  of  the  Old 
Testament,  that  they  forsake  the  70  version,  when- 
ever it  gave  not  that  sense,  so  far  as  they  had  occa- 
sion to  quote  it  ;  and  these  quotations  often  agree 
clearly  with  the  present  Hebrew. 

Isa.  XXV.  8.  with  1  Cor.  xv.  54.  "  Death  is  swallowed  up  in 
\ictory,"  or,  "  for  ever  '' — but  70.  "  Death,  being  victorious, 
hath  swallowed  up." 

1129.  But  some  of  the  quotations  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, not  copied  from  the  70,  seem  to  differ  from 
the  Hebrew,  as  well  as  from  that  version. 

1130.  The  appearance  of  contradiction  sometimes 
arises  from  the  Hebrew  being  generally  misunderstood: 
the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  express  the  true 
sense,  though  not  the  sense  generally  put  upon  it. 

Ps.  Ixviii.  18.  "  Thou  hast  received  gifts  for  men,"  Heb.  70.— 
but  Eph.  iv   8.  "g-ave  gifts  unto  men.*'    npS  signifies  both. 
Chahl.  Grot,  Diu.^. 
Glass,  1.  3.  t.  3.  c.  2. 
Mic.  V.  2.  with  Matth  ii.  Q* 


IN  QUOTATIONS.  389 

1131.  The  appearance  of  contradiction  sometimes 
arises  from  the  apostles  not  intending  a  literal  transla- 
tion, but  only  giving  the  general  meaning  of  a  pas- 
sage. 

Isa.  xlii.  1—4  quoted  Matth.  xii.  17—21.     Grot. 

1132.  It  may  sometimes  arise  from  a  mistake  hav- 
ing crept  into  the  Hebrew  text. 

1133.  2.  There  is  often  a  difficulty  with  regard 
to  the  application  of  quotations ;  when  they  are  ap- 
plied to  a  purpose  to  which  they  seem  to  have  no  re- 
lation^ according  to  their  original  design. 

1134.  This  difficulty  arises  from  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament  making  quotations  from  the  Old,  with 
very  different  views  ;  and,  it  can  be  removed  only  by 
attending  to  their  real  view  in  a  particular  quotation. 

1135.  When  they  quote  a  passage  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, merely  in  the  way  of  allusion,  it  is  enough 
that  the  words  which  they  borrow,  express  emphati- 
cally their  own  meaning ;  it  is  not  necessary  that  they 
be  precisely  the  same  with  those  in  the  passage  allud- 
ed to,  nor  that  they  be  there  used,  either  of  the  same 
subject,  or  of  a  similar  subject. 

Deut.  XXX.  12,  13,  14.  of  the  law. — Rom.  x.  6,  7,  8.  accommo- 
dated to  the  gospel,  with  proper  variations  and  explications. 

Ps.  xix.  4.  of  the  heavenly  bodies. — Rom.  x.  18.  accommodated 
to  the  preaching  of  the  apostles. 

1136.  Sometimes,  they  mean  only  to  apply  to  one 
case,  expressions  which  have  been  used  in  the  Old 
Testament  of  a  similar  case^  and  thus  to  intimate^  thart 


390  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

the  two  cases  are,  in  some  respects,  correspondent ;  and, 
when  they  do,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  original  be 
exactly  copied. 

Jer.  xxxi.  15.  "  Voice  in  Ramah/'  &c.  of  the  captivity.  Matth. 
ii.  17,  18.  of  the  murder  of  the  infants. 

Hos.  xi.  1.  "Out  of  Egypt  have  I  called  my  son."  Matth.  ii. 

15.  to  Christ-s  deliverance  from  Herod. 
Isa.  lii.  5.  "  My  name  is  blasphemed." — Rom.ii.  24.  applied  to 

the  Jews  of  that  time. 

1137.  When  they  quote  a  passage  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament to  prove  a  point  of  doctrine,  they  apply  it, 
though  not  always  in  the  precise  words  of  the  original, 
yet  constantly  according  to  its  genuine  sense,  as  it 
stands  there. 

Deut.  viii.  3.  "  Not  live  by  bread  alone."  with  Matth.  iv.  4. 

Deut.  vi.  16.  «  Not  tempt  the  Lord,"  with  Matth.  iv.  7. 

Hos  vi.  6.    •'  Mercy  and  not  sacrifice."  applied  to  different 

purposes,  Matth.  ix.  13  and  xii   7.  but  to  both  properly. 
Deut.  xxxii.  35.  and  Prov.  xxv  21,  22.  with  Rom.  xii.  19,  20. 
Eras.  Vat.  Ham.  Tayl. 

1138.  When  they  quote  passages  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, as  predictions  accomplished,  these  passages 
were  really  intended  to  fortell  the  very  events  to  which 
they  apply  them,  though  various  circumstances  prevent 
our  readily  perceiving  that  they  were. 

11.39.  Predictions  which  relate  only  to  the  times  of 
the  Messiah,  are  yet  not  readily  perceived  to  relate  to 
them,  by  reason  of  the  obscure,  or  figurative,  or  poeti- 
cal manner  in  which  they  are  expressed. 

Zech.  xi.  12,  13.  with  Matth.  xxvii.  9,  10. 

Mai.  iv.  5.  "  Elijah—terrible  day."     Matth.  xi.  14.  xvii.  12. 


IN  QUOTATIONS.  391 

1140.  Predictions  which  relate  only  to  the  times  of 
the  Messiah,  are  mistaken  as  referring  to  other  things, 
by  reason  of  their  being  intermixed  with,  or  occasioned 
by,  such  as  do  relate  to  these  other  things. 

Isa.  vii.  14.  with  Matth.  i.  23. 
Isa.  ix.  1,  2.  with  Matth.  iv.  15,  16. 
IVlede,  Disc.  £5. 

1141.  Predictions  which  relate  only  to  the  times  of 
the  Messiah,  are  sometimes  obscured  by  their  having 
been  very  generally  misunderstood,  and  misapplied  to 
other  events. 

Deut.  xviii.  15.  "A  prophet  like  unto  me."  with  Acts  iii.  22. 
vii.  S7. 

1142.  The  application  of  predictions  in  the  New 
Testament,  is  sometimes  rendered  obscure,  by  our  not 
ascertaining  the  precise  point,  for  proof  of  which  they 
are  quoted. 

Isa.  liii.  4.  with  Matth.  viii.  17.  not  as  proof  of  miracles,  but  of 
his  being  the  Saviour,  of  whose  salvation  these  miracles  were 
samples. 

Ps.  viii.  2.  with  Matth.  xxi.  16. 

1143.  The  application  of  predictions  in  the  New 
Testament,  sometimes  appears  exceptionable,  because 
they  refer  to  other  events  in  their  primary  and  literal 
sense,  and  to  the  Messiah  only  in  a  secondary  sense. 

Ps,  viii.  6,  7,  8.  with  Heb.  ii.  6,  &c.  1  Cor.  xv.  27. 

1144.  Difficulty  sometimes  arises,  from  its  not  be- 
ing clear  what  is  the  particular  passage  of  the  Old 
Testament,    intended  in  a  quotation  or  reference. 


392  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

Heb.  i.  6.  whence  quoted? 

Matth.  ii.  23.  *'  called  a  Nazarene," — from  some  book  lost, 
Chrjs. — or,  from  interpreters  of  the  prophets, — or,  refers  to 
Nazarites,  (Eras.  Zeger.  Grot.)  and  intimates  that  he  should 
be  "the  holy  One." — or,  to  the  prediction  of  "^VJ,  "  a  branch,'' 
Isa.  xi.  I.  Bez.  Maldon.  Ham. — or,  to  predictions  of  his  be- 
ing despised. 

Macknight.  Campb. 

John  xix.  36,  37. 

Kennic.  Diss.  Gen. 

1145.  Sometimesj  there  is  difficulty  in  a  quotation^ 
both  with  respect  to  the  words,  and  with  respect  to 
the  application  of  it;  and  difficulties  of  each  sort 
sometimes  arise  from  several  of  the  causes  together, 
which  have  been  mentioned ;  but  they  may  be  all 
removed  by  the  means  already  pointed  out. 

Zech.  xi.  12,  13.  with  Matth.  xxvii.  9,  10. 


SECT.  II. 


Seeming  Contradictions  in  Historical  Passages. 


1146.  There  are  appearances  of  contradiction — in 
the  circumstances  of  events,  as  they  are  related  in  one 
passage  of  Scripture, — in  different  relations  of  the 
same  events,  by  different  sacred  writers, — and  in  the 
relation  of  events  in  one  passage,  and  references  to 
them  in  another. 


IN  HISTORICAL  PASSAGES.  393 

1147.  1.  Appearances  of  contradktion,  in  any  one 
relation  of  an  event,  arise  either  from  false  readings  ; 
or,  from  obscurity?  or  ambiguity  in  some  of  the  ex- 
pressions ;  or,  from  transpositions  in  the  order  of  re- 
lating ;  and,  sometimes,  from  more  than  one  of  these 
causes. 

Gen.  xxix.  1. — 8.  A  dialogue,  yet  none  mentioned  but  Jacob 
and  three  flocks  of  sheep,  which  converse,  and  roll  the  stone, 
and  water  the  sheep. — from  changing  O'VI'^n,  "  shepherds," 
into  CZ3m;;n,  in  v.  2.  and  8.  "  flocks  *'  Sam.  Arab  70. — 
from  V.  3.  expressing  what  customarily  happened,  not  what 
had  then  actually  happened.  Vulg. 
Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  360. 
1  Sam.  xvii.  12,  &c. 

Ken.  Diss.  2.  p.  418,  &c.  554,  &c.  575. 

1148.  2.  When  the  same  events  are  related  in 
diiferent  places,  there  is  sometimes  an  appearance  of 
contradiction  with  respect — either  to  the  facts  them- 
selves, and  their  circumstances^ — or^  to  the  order  of 
them. 

1149.  Seeming  contradictions  in  the  facts  them- 
selves, and  their  circumstances,  are  of  different  kinds, 
and  arise  from  different  causes. 

1150.  There  are  many  differences  in  proper  names, 
most  of  which  arise  from  false  readings,  and  must  be 
reconciled  by  correcting  these. 

Hadadezar,  Sam. — Hadarezar,  Chron.    Abimelech,  Chron.— 
Ahimelech,  Sam. — Bathshebah  the  daughter  of  Eliam,  Sam. 
— Bathshuah  the  daughter  of  Amiel,  Chron. — Nebuchadnez- 
zar— Nebuchadrezzar. 
50 


394  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

1151.  The  true  name  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  corrupted  one,  by  the  usage  of  Scripture  in  other 
places,  by  that  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  of  the  an- 
cient versions,  and  of  Josephus. 

1152.  There  are  many  differences  in  numbers,  and 
these   also   generally   arise   from   a     false   reading. 

1153.  Sometimes  the  corruption  is  occasioned  by  a 
similitude  in  the  names  of  the  numbers. 

1  Chron.  xi.  11,  15,  20.  compared  with  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8,  13,  18. 
Ken.  Diss.  1. 

1154.  Sometimes,  it  is  occasioned  by  a  similitude 
between  the  numeral  letters. 

Numb.  iii.  22,  28,  34,  39.     Ken.  Diss,  1,  p.  99. 

1  Kings  ix.  28.  with  2  Chron.  viii.  1 0.     lb.  p.  529. 

2  Kings  viii.  26.  with  2  Chron.  xxii.  2. 

2  Sam.  viii.  4.  with  1  Chron.  xviii.  4.  lb.  p.  462. 
2  Sam.  X.  18.  with  1  Chron.  xix.  18.  lb.  p.  463. 
2  Sam.  xxiv.  13.  with  1  Chron.  xxi.  12. 

1  Kings  ix.  28.  with  2  Chron.  viii.  18.     lb.  p.  529. 

1155.  Sometimes  the  corruption  seems  to  have  been 
occasioned  by  a  similitude  in  figures,  by  which  num- 
bers were  expressed. 

2  Sam.  vi.  19.  50,070— but  5,070.  Syr.  Arab. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  532.     Diss.  2.  p.  208. — 70  Ken.  Rem.  in  1. 

1  Kings  iv.  26.  40,000.  with  2  Chron.  ix.  25.  4,000. 
lb.  Diss.  1. 

2  Chron.  xiii.  3,  17.400,000.  800,000.  500,000.— Old  Vulgate, 
40,000.  80,000.  50,000. 

lb.  and  Diss.  2.  p.  196. 

2  Kings  xxiv.  8.  with  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9. 


IN  HISTORICAL  PASSAGES.  395 

lb.  Diss.  2.  p.  216. 
2  Chron.  xvii.  13—19. 

lb.  p.  218. 
£  Sam.  xxiii  8.  with  1  Cliron.  xt.  11. 

lid.  Diss.  1.  p.  95. 

1156.  But  diflPerences  in  numbers  sometimes  arise 
only  from  the  writers  using  different  methods  of  reckon- 
ing. 

Mark  xv.  25      Jesus  crucified  at  the  third  hour.    Jewish  com- 
putation     John  xix.    14.  brought  forth  at  the  sixth  hour. 
Roman  computation ;   or,  a  different  manner  of  reckoning 
among  the  Jews. 
Campbell. 

1157.  Facts^  or  even  a  series  of  facts,  in  one  histo- 
rian, seem  to  be  the  same  with  those  related  by  an- 
other historian,  yet  to  be  totally  repugnant  to  them  in 
many  of  their  circumstances  ;  but,  are  not  repugnant, 
because  they  are  really  different  facts. 

Matth.  i.  1,  ^c.    Christ's  genealogy  by  Joseph.     Luke  iii.  23, 
&c.     His  genealogy  by  Mary. 

1158.  When  what  was  spoken  is  differently  related 
by  different  historians,  it  sometimes  proceeds  from 
their  intending  to  give,  not  the  very  words,  but  only 
the  sense  ;  sometimes,  from  their  recording  different 
parts  of  what  was  said ;  and,  sometimes,  from  both 
together. 

Words  of  the  institution  of  the  Supper.    Title  on  the  cross. 
Matth.  xix.  3,  &c.  with  Mark  x.  2,  &c. 
Macknight. 

1159.  When  there  appears  to  be  a  contrariety  in 
different  relations  of  what  was  spoken,  it  may  be  often 


S96  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

removed  by  limiting  and  restraining  the  general  or 
ambiguous  expressions^  or  explaining  the  obscure 
ones,  from  which  it  arises. 

Matth.  X.  10.  "  Neither  shoes — nor  a  staff"  Mark  vi.  8.  "no- 
thing save  a  staff— but  shod  with  sandals." 
Calv.  Munst.  Lamy.  Macknight. 

1160.  A  seeming  contradiction  between  different 
relations  of  what  was  done,  sometimes  arises  from  the 
same  causes,  and  is  removed  by  the  same  means. 

Matth  iii.  13,  14.     "  Comest  thou  to  me"— but  John  i.  33.   "  I 

knew  him  not,"  i.  e.  had  not  known  him. 
Mark  v.  23.     "  My  daughter  is  at  the  point  of  death ;"  but, 

Matth.  ix.  18.  "is  dead,"  i.  e.  almost  dead. 

1161.  A  seeming  contradiction  sometimes  arises, 
from  different  historians  relating  different  circumstan- 
ces, or  one  of  them,  more  or  fewer  than  the  other. 

Matth  ii.  with  Luke  ii.  i — 39. 

Acts  ix.  7.  with  ch.  xxii.  9.  xxvi.  14. 

1162.  There  are  seeming  contradictions,  likewise, 
in  the  order  of  facts,  as  related  by  different  historians. 
They  sometimes  introduce  events  by  anticipation,  and 
and  sometimes  by  vcrTS^co/rig. 

Gen.  i.  27.  The  creation  of  man  briefly  hinted.  Ch.  ii.  7.  af- 
ter several  other  things,  the  creation  of  Adam  particularly  ; 
and  V.  21.  after  some  other  things,  that  of  Eve. 

Matth.  xxvi.  21.  and  Mark  xiv.  18.  intimation  who  should  be- 
tray him,  while  eating  the  passover— but,  Luke  xxii.  21,  af- 
ter the  institution  of  the  supper ;  this  iast  the  true  order,  for 
occasioned  by  the  cup,  and  suitable  to  John,  that  Judas  in- 
stantly went  out. 


IN  HISTORICAL  PASSAGES.  397 

John's  imprisonment.  I  uke,  in  the  account  of  his  preaching, 
hints  it;  the  rest,  by  ursf^e/a-tq,  give  a  particular  account  of  it, 
at  Herod's  being  alarmed ;  none  of  them  mention  it  in  its 
own  place. 

Acts  ix.  4,  5,  7.  with  ch.  xxii.  9.  xxvi.  14,  15. 

1163.  The  sacred  historians  often  deviate  from  the 
exact  order  of  time ;  and  are  at  liberty  to  do  so,  as 
they  proposed  not  to  write  regular  journals.  In  this 
case,  the  nature  of  the  thing  sometimes  shews  which 
historian  observes  the  real  order. 

Isa.  xxwiii.  n,  22.     Sign  of  recovery  given  to  Hezekiah sign 

asked  ;— real  order  in  2  Kings  xx.  7,  8  ;  a  transposition  in 
Isa.  and,  probably,  from  a  transcriber's  mistake. 


1164.  If  one  historian  affirms  the  order  which  he 
observes,  and  another  does  not,  the  real  order  is  that 
which  is  followed  by  the  former. 

Matth.  iv.  affirms  the  order  of  temptations,  rore,  ttxXik  Luke 
iv.  a  different  order,  but  not  affirmed,  only  ««/. 

1165.  When  one  of  the  historians  can  be  shown  to 
have  had  a  particular  reason  for  departing  from  the 
order  of  time,  while  the  other  had  no  such  reason,  the 
facts  ought  to  be  placed  in  that  order  which  the  latter 
has  observed. 

A  writer  may  be  prevented  from  relating  an  event  at  the  time 
it  happened,  by  not  having  taken  notice  of  the  circumstan- 
ces which  occasioned  it. — The  mention  of  one  event  gives 
occasion  for  mentioning  others,  its  consequences,  though  lono- 
posterior ; — or,  for  going  backward  to  what  contributed  to  it ; 
— or,  for  introducing  others  similar  to  it. 

1166.  Difficulties  regarding  the  facts  themselves, 
and  difficulties  regarding  the  order  of  them,  often  mu- 
tually arise,  in  part,  from  each  other. 


398  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

1167.  FactSj  related  by  different  historians^  in  dif- 
ferent places  of  their  narration,  are  apt  to  be  regarded 
as  different  facts,  but  may  be  the  same  facts. 

Cleric,  can.  7.    Michael.  §  86. 

Matth.  xxvi.  6 — 13.  and  Mark  xiv.  3 — 9.  give  the  history  of 
anointing  Christ  two  days  before  the  passover ; — but  John 
xii.  3 — 8  six  days  before  it — seeming  inconsistencies  in  the 
circumstances,  as  well  as  time — not  different,  Cler.  Mackn- 
but  the  same,  and  consistent.  Michael.  Drus.  Grot. — each 
had  a  natural  occasion  for  placing  it  as  he  does  ;  John,  for 
mentioning  it  when  it  happened,  by  the  resurrection  of  Laza- 
rus; the  others,  not  then,  but  by  vi-epacrt^^  on  Judas's  making 
his  bargain  ;  and,  they  give  no  note  of  time.  John  says  not 
that  it  was  in  the  house  of  Lazarus; — other  circumstances 
easily  reconciled; — the  different  circumstances  to  be  put  to- 
gether. 

1168.  Facts,  related  by  different  sacred  historians, 
may  be  different,  though  they  be  similar  in  many  of 
their  circumstances,  and  though  there  be  nothing  in 
the  order  of  relating  them  which  can  certainly  fix  the 
diversity. 

Cler.  can.  9,  10.    Mackn.  Obs.  4. 

Luke  xii.  36 — 50.  Anointing  of  Jesus—not  the  same  with  the 

former.  Grot,  but  different ; — the  similar  circumstances  easily 

accounted  for ; — the  discordant  ones,  not. 

1169.  3.  There  is,  sometimes,  an  appearance  of 
contradiction  between  professed  relations  of  events  in 
one  passage,  and  incidental  references  to  them  in 
another. 

1170.  Sometimes,  the  reference  appears  repugnant 
to  circumstances  actually  taken  notice  of  in  the  narra- 
tion ;  and,  such  repugnance  may  be  of  any  of  the  kinds 


IN  HISTORICAL  PASSAGES.  399 

already  mentioned^  and  is  to  be  removed  by  the  same 
principles. 

Mark.  ii.  25,  26.  "  In  the  days  of  Abiathar" — refers  to  1  Sam. 
xxi.  1,  2.  where  it  is  *'  Ahimelech  ;'* — not,  a  false  reading  in 
Mark — not,  the  son  of  the  high-priest — not,  about  the  time 
of  Abiathar — not,  a  mere  denomination,  because  afterwards 
high-priest— -but,  Abiathar,  the  father  of  Ahimelech,  who  of- 
ficiated for  him,  and,  therefore,  naturally  mentioned  in  Sam. 
and  he,  the  father  of  another  Abiathar. 

Matth.  xxiii.  35.  "  Zacharias,  the  son  of  Barachias" — seems  to 
contradict  2  Chron.  xxiv.  21.  "  son  of  Jehoiada."  Tillots. 
vol.  2.  Ser.  27. 

Acts  vii.  16.  with  Gen.  xxxiii.  19. 

1171.  Sometimes,  things  are  referred  to  as  having 
happened,  of  which  no  notice  at  all  is  taken  in  the 
relations  of  the  sacred  historians ;  but,  this  implies 
only  that  these  historians  do  not  relate  every  thing 
that  happened. 

Mackn.  Obs.  2. 

Gen.  xxxi.  7,  8.  Changing  Jacob's  wages.  Ps.  cv.  18.  Jo- 
seph fettered.  Hos.  xii.  4.  xiii.  10.  Amos  v.  2.  Mic.  vi. 
5—8.  Matth.  xi.  21.  John  xi.  49,  50  Acts  xx.  35.  a  say- 
ing of  Christ.  1  Cor;  xv.  7.  an  appearance  of  Christ  to 
James. 

1172  It  is,  both  to  obtain  light  by  comparison  of 
parallel  places,  and  to  remove  seeming  contradictions, 
that  harmonies  of  the  historical  books  of  Scripture  are 
intended  ;  and,  what  has  been  said  under  these  two 
heads,  points  out  the  general  principles  on  which  such 
harmonies  should  be  constructed. 

Macknight's  liarmony.  White's  Diatessaron.  Fellowes'  Guide 
to  Immortality.    Marsh's  Michael,  vol.  3.  ch.  2. 


400  SEEMING  C0NTRADICTI0N6 


SECT.  III. 


Seeming  Contradictions  between  Predictions  and  their 
Accomplishment, 


1173.  When,  both  a  prediction,  and  the  event 
foretold  in  it,  are  recorded  in  Scripture,  there  is, 
sometimes,  an  appearance  of  disagreement  and  incon- 
sistence between  them. 

1174.  This  appearance  generally  arises  from  some 
difficulty  in  understanding  the  true  meaning  of  the 
prediction;  it  may  be  occasioned  by  any  of  those 
causes  which  produce  the  peculiar  difficulties  of  the 
prophetical  writings  ;  and,  it  is  to  be  removed  by  the 
same  means  which  serve  for  clearing  these  difficulties. 

1175.  It  may  proceed  from  any  sort  of  obscurity  or 
ambiguity  in  the  expression,  or  from  any  sort  of  un- 
certainty in  the  structure  of  a  sentence. 

Matt.  xii.  40.    Jesus  three  nights  and  three  days  in  the  grave. 

1176.  In  particular,  it  often  proceeds  from  the  fig- 
urative style  of  prophecy. 

1177.  It  may  be  occasioned  by  the  ordinary  manner 
of  the  prophets,  predicting  what  relates  to  the  moral 
and  religious  state  of  the  world,  in  metaphors  borrow- 
ed from  the  parts  of  the  natural  world. 

Newton  on  Daniel.     Hag.  ii.  6—9. 


BETWEEN  PREDICTIONS^  &C.  401 

1178.  It  may  be  occasioned  by  the  prophets  ex- 
pressing what  relates  to  the  Christian  dispensation 
and  worship,  in  terms  borrowed  from  the  Mosaic  re- 
ligion. 

Warb.  Div  Leg.     Halifax,  Serm.  1. 

Isa.  ii.  2,  3.  xix.  19.  Ivi.  T.     Jer.  iii.  17.     Zech.  viii.  22.     Mai. 
i.  1 1. 

1179.  It  may  be  occasioned,  by  a  prediction  relat- 
ing only  to  one  part  of  a  complex  character,  or  event, 
and,  on  that  account,  seeming  to  be  inconsistent  with 
other  parts  of  it ;  and  the  appearance  will  be  remov- 
ed, by  taking  in  such  predictions  as  relate  to  these 
other  parts,  and  considering  them  all  in  connexion. 

Predictions  of  the  glory  of  the  Messiah — to  be  compared  with 
predictions  of  his  precedent  suiFerings. 

1180.  It  sometimes  arises  from  several  of  these 
causes,  or  from  them  all  together. 

Gen.  xlix.  10. 
Isa.  vii-  8.    Lowth. 


SECT.  IV. 


Seeming  Contradictions  in  Points  of  Doctrine, 


1181.  There  is,  sometimes,  an  appearance  of  con- 
tradiction, between  the  doctrine  delivered  in  one  pas- 
sage, and  the  doctrine  delivered  in  another  passage. 
51 


402  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

1182.  Between  a  general  assertion  in  one  text,  and 
a  restriction  of  it,  or  exception  from  it,  in  another 
text,  there  is  an  appearance  of  contradiction,  which  is 
sometimes  removed,  by  explaining  the  former  with  the 
proper  limitations. 

Luke  xvi.  18.  Mark  x.  11,  12.  divorce  absolutely  forbidden — 
but,  Matth.  V.  32.  xix.  9.  allowed  for  adultery  only ;  yet, 
1  Cor.  vii.  15.  seems  to  be  allowed  also  for  wilful  desertion. 

1183.  An  appearance  of  contradiction  in  a  point  of 
doctrine,  sometimes  arises,  from  the  same  term  being 
used  in  different  senses,  in  different  texts  ;  and  is  re- 
moved by  restricting  it  properly  in  each. 

Mat.  xviii.  21,  22.  forgiveness  required  absolutely — but  Luke 
xvii.  S,  4.  required  only  on  condition  of  repentance — for- 
giveness used  in  different  senses.  Rom.  iii.  28.  "  A  man  is 
justified  by  faith,  without  the  deeds  of  the  law" — but.  Jam. 
ii.  24.  "  By  works  a  man  is  justified,  and  not  by  faith  only," 
Some  of  the  words  in  different  senses;  either  works;  some 
think  that  Paul  means  *  ceremonial  works,'  James,  '  moral,* 
Cla?.  Wall. — others,  Paul,  *  perfect  obedience,'  James,  *  im- 
perfect,' Vatab. — or  faith  ;  Paul,  'true  faith  with  its  effects,' 
James,  *  mere  assent,'  Grot.  Drus.  J.  Capel.  Macknight, — or 
justification ;  some,  Paul,  *in  the  sight  of  God,'  James,  'in 
that  of  men;'  others,  Paul,  *  first  justification,'  James,  *  se- 
cond, or  final.'    Zeger.     Hoadley.     Tayl. 

1184.  When  the  same  action  or  effect  seems,  in 
different  passages  of  Scripture,  to  be  ascribed  to  dif- 
ferent causes,  it  sometimes  arises,  from  the  name  of 
that  action  or  effect  not  being  used  in  precisely  the 
same  signification,  in  these  passages. 

Rom.  iv.  25.  '*  And  was  raised  again  for  our  justification ;" 
but,  ch.  v.  9.  "Being  justified  by  his  bloody^^  or  death. 


IN  POINTS  OP  DOCTRINE.  403 

Rom.  viii.  34.  "Christ  evTvyx^^vei  makes  intercession  for  us;'* 
so  Heb.  vii.  25. — but,  Rom.  viii.  26,  27.  "  The  Spirit  evrvy- 
%(x-^Hi^  viz.  by  his  influence  on  our  hearts. 

1183.  When  the  same  action  or  effect  is,  in  differ- 
ent texts,  ascribed  to  different  persons  or  causes,  it  is, 
sometimes,  on  account  of  their  all  contributing  to  it  in 
different  ways. 

1186.  When  different,  and  seemingly  inconsistent, 
descriptions  are  given  of  the  same  subject,  often  they 
both  represent  it  truly,  but  in  different  points  of  view. 

Christ  sitting  at  God's  right  hand  ; — but.  Acts  vii.  56.  standing. 
Mat.  X.  34.  compared  with  Luke  ix.  56,  and  with  the  whole 
genius  of  the  gospel. 

1187.  The  pretended  contrariety  between  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  New. 

1188.  The  contrariety  pretended  by  Morgan  and 
Bolingbroke,  between  the  gospel  of  Christ  and  that 
of  Paul. 


404  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS' 


CHAP.  VI. 


Seeming  Contradictions  to  Reason  and  Morality. 

1189.  There  are,  in  Scripture,  some  passages  which 
have  the  appearance  of  contradicting  the  principles  of 
reason  and  morality,  and  which  must  be  explained  so 
as  to  be  reconciled  to  these  principles. 

1190.  They  are,  either  seeming  contradictions  to 
truth — or,  seemingly  contradictory  to  good  morals — 
or,  in  appearance  unreasonably  severe,  or  impracti- 
cable. 


SECT.  I. 


Seeming  Contradictions  to  Truth, 

1191.  There  are,  in  Scripture,  passages  which 
seem  to  be  contradictory  to  truth,  to  imply  some  absur- 
dity, or,  at  least,  to  be  inconsistent  with  true  opinions. 

1192.  Some  seeming  absurdities,  or  contradictions 
to  truth,  arise  only  from  false  readings,  and  are  re- 
moved by  restoring  the  true  reading. 


TO  TRUTH*  405 

1193.  Some  seeming  contradictions  to  truth  arise 
only  from  the  use  of  figurative  expressions,  accommo- 
dated to  the  weakness  of  human  conceptions,  or,  to  the 
ordinary  way  of  thinking  of  mankind. 

Bodily  parts  and  passions  ascribed  to  God.  Representations 
not  according  to  the  true  system  of  nature. 

1194.  The  account  of  the  creation,  as  implying  that 
light  was  made  on  the  first  day,  and  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars,  only  on  the  fourth  day,  and  that  there  are  waters 
above  and  below,  divided  by  a  solid  partition,  cannot 
be  pronounced  absurd  or  impossible,  though  it  may  be 
difficult,  from  the  nature  and  singularity  of  the  subject, 
to  give  an  explication  of  these,  and  other  particulars, 
that  shall  be,  in  all  respects,  satisfactory. 

Burnett,  Archfeol.  1.  2.  c.  8.  9.  Jennings*  Astron.  Append. 
Whiston's  Theory,  Pref.  Edwards'  Exercitations,  No.  1. 
Patrick  on  Gen.  i.  3 — 15.  Nichols'  Confer,  vol.  1.  p.  90,  &c. 
Univ.  Hist.  vol.  1. 

1195.  The  appearances  of  absurdity  in  the  account 
of  the  fall,  of  supposing  a  brute  serpent  to  speak.  Eve 
not  to  be  alarmed  at  it,  and  the  serpent  to  be  sentenced 
to  what  he  always  did,  and  could  not  but  do,  to  go 
upon  his  belly,  arise,  according  to  some,  only  from  tak- 
ing, in  a  literal  sense,  figurative  expressions  used  con- 
cerning the  devil. 

Chandler's  Serm.     Gerard's  Serm.  vol.  I.  Serm.  4. 

1196.  There  is  no  absurdity  in  supposing  the  de- 
luge universal,  on  account  of  the  vast  quantity  of  water 
necessary  for  overflowing  the  earth  to  such  a  depth 
as  Moses  asserts  5  for  that  quantity  might,  possibly, 


406  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

be  naturally  brought  upon  it^  and  certainly  could^  by  a 
miracle. 

Burnett.  Whiston.  Keil.  Saurin.  Nichols.  Edwards.  Ray. 
Univ.  Hist. 

1197.  We  are  too  much  ignorant  of  the  real  di- 
mensions of  Noah's  arkj  and,  likewise,  of  the  number 
of  the  originally  distinct  kinds  of  animals,  to  be  able  to 
determine  that  it  was  impossible  for  it  to  contain  the 
numbers  said  by  Moses  to  have  been  received  into   it. 

Wells's  Geog.  of  O.  T.  v.  1.  Saurin,  Diss.  v.  1.  Univ.  Hist. 
V.  1.  Cahners  Diet.  Wilkinss  Real  Char.  p.  2.  c.  5.  §  6, 7. 
Stillingf.  Orig.  Sacr.  1.  3.  c.  4.  §  7. 

1198.  It  is  said  to  be  absurd  to  represent  the  rain- 
bow as  created  after  the  deluge,  and  made  the  sign  of  a 
covenant  then  entered  into,  when  it  necessarily  results 
from  the  nature  of  light  and  of  rain  ;  but,  either  the 
constitution  of  the  antediluvian  world  may  have  been 
such  as  to  prevent  its  appearance,  or,  it  might  have 
been  after  the  flood,  only  appropriated  to  a  new  pur- 
pose, though  it  had  always  appeared. 

Burnett.     Whist.     Nichols.     Saurin. 

1199.  Objections  raised  against  incidents  related  in 
Scripture,  as,  Balaam's  ass  speaking,  some  of  Samp- 
son's exploits,  &c.  are  not  sufficient  to  render  them  in- 
credible ;  such  facts  being  professedly  related  as  mira- 
culous, and  some  of  them  too,  being  capable  of  inter- 
pretations, which  render  them  less  marvellous  than 
they  are  generally  thought  to  be. 

Stackhouse. 


TO  TRUTH*  407 

1200.  The  Scripture  seems  to  suppose  the  reality  of 
magical  operations,  and  witchcraft ;  but  they  cannot 
be,  on  that  account,  proved  absurd ;  for,  though  the 
greatest  part  of  what  has  passed  as  such,  has  doubtless 
been  the  effect  of  a  disordered  imagination,  or  artificial 
contrivance,  or  mere  fiction  and  imposition;  yet  we 
cannot  be  certain  that  evil  spirits  have  never  been  per- 
mitted such  communication  with  mankind. 

1201 .  There  is  no  absurdity  in  the  accounts  so  fre- 
quent in  the  New  Testament,  of  demoniacs,  or  persons 
possessed  by  evil  spirits,  and  tormented  with  diseases 
by  their  influence ;  w'hether,  with  some,  we  explain 
these  passages  as  speaking  only  of  certain  natural  dis- 
eases, in  language  accommodated  to  the  notions  then 
commonly  entertained  of  them  ;  or  whether,  as  is  the 
general  opinion,  we  consider  them  as  real  possessions. 

1202.  The  healing  virtue  of  the  pool  at  Bethesda, 
after  its  being  moved  by  the  angel,  is  miraculous,  but 
not  absurd  or  incredible. 

John  V.  4,     Macknight.     Griesb. 

1203.  When  some  of  the  doctrines  of  revelation  are 
represented  as  contrary  to  reason,  the  contrariety  al- 
leged generally  affects,  not  the  expressions  of  any  text 
of  Scripture  concerning  them,  but  some  of  the  expli- 
cations which  men  have  given  of  these  doctrines  ;  and, 
therefore,  belongs  more  properly  to  the  System,  than 
to  Scripture  criticism. 


408  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 


SECT.  II. 


Seeming  Contradictions  to  Morality. 


1204.  Though  it  must  be  acknowledged  by  every 
person  of  common  candour,  that  the  Scripture  conthins, 
in  general,  the  purest  morality,  yet,  there  are  some 
p.  rticular  passages,  which  have  been  represented  as 
giving  countenance  to  immorality.  There  are  instan- 
ces of  this  in  historical  relations — in  occasional  com- 
mands— in  standing  precepts — in  doctrines — and  in 
prophecies. 

1205.  1.  The  characters  of  some  of  the  saints  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  are,  in  some  respects,  faulty  ;  but, 
as  their  faults  are,  sometimes,  expressly  condemned — 
sometimes,  merely  related  as  facts  ;  as  their  charac- 
ters are  often,  notwithstanding  these  faults,  excellent 
upon  the  whole  ;  as  the  not  concealing  them  shows 
the  integrity  of  the  writers,  and  tends  to  answer 
many  good  purposes,  they  give  no  countenance  to 
immorality. 

Noah's  drunkenness.  Jacob's  deceiving  Isaac.  Jephtha  and 
Sampson  bad  characters,  yet  commended  for  faith,  Heb.  xi. 
39.  David.  Chandler's  Life  of  David,  and  Answer  to  his- 
tory of  the  man  after  God's  own  heart  Solomon.  Jere- 
miah's complaint,  ch.  xx.  7.  seems  impious  and  undutiful ; 
but  this  inconsistent  with  v.  11,  13.  r\T\>i  signifies  not  deceive, 
but  allurey  alluding  to  ch.  i.  5,  10.  xv.  16.  not  deceived,  for 


TO  MORALITY.  409 

warned,  ch.  1.  17 — 19.  The  word  so  used  Gen.  ix.  ^.9. 
on  ojr  margin,  Prov.  xxv.  15.  H(»-.  ii.  1^?. — stronger,  pre- 
vailt  not  foced.  p^^  fortifi/,  or  encourage.  Deut.  i.  38. 
iii.  ^8.  Isa.  xii.  7,  &c.  Blayn. — Peter  and  Paul's  contest. 
Dissension  between  Paul  and  Barnabas.  Paul's  excuse. 
Acts  xxiii.  5. 

1206.  None  of  the  actions  recorded  of  Jesus  Christ 
are,  in  the  smallest  degree,  immoral,  or  inconsistent 
with  sinless  perfection. 

His  severe  rebukes  of  the  Jews,  of  Peter.  His  hurtful  mira- 
cles. John  ii.  4,  10.  seeming  disrespect  to  his  mother— asser- 
tion that  his  hour  was  not  come — encouraging  intemperance. 
Chandler,  Ans.  to  Woolston.  John  vii.  8.  not  going  up  to 
the  feast.  John  viii.  3,  &c.  the  woman  caught  in  adulterj. 
The  passage,  however,  is  doubtful. 
Michael.     Marsh's  Transl.     Griesb. 

1207.  2.  God's  command  to  Abraham  to  sacrifice 
Isaac,  has  been  represented  as  a  command  to  commit 
murder  in  its  most  horrid  form,  and,  consequently,  as 
inconsistent  with  the  holiness  of  God  to  give ;  but  it 
may  be  vindicated,  whether  we  consider  it  as  only  a 
symbolical  action,  or  whether,  without  this,  we  resolve 
it  into  God's  sovereignty  over  the  lives  of  his  crea- 
tures. 

Warb.    Div.   Leg.     Tillots.  vol.   2.   Serm.  2.     Answerers  to 
Morgan. 

1208.  The  Israelites  borrowing  from  the  Egyptians 
valuable  things,  which  they  never  intended  to  restore, 
is  represented  as  an  act  of  injustice  ;  and  the  divine 
direction,  by  which  they  did  it,  as  authorizing  theft : 
but  God  has  the  property  of  all  things,  and  may  trans- 
fer it  from  one  to  another  in  what  way  he  pleases ;    if 

52 


410  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

they  had  intended  to  restore  them,  Pharaoh's  sudden 
order  to  them  to  leave  Egypt,  might  have  put  it  out 
of  their  power ;  but,  in  fcict,  the  words  signify,  not 
that  they  borrow^ed,  but  that  they  asked  or  demanded 
them,  and  that  they  were  given  them  voluntarily. 

Tillots.  vol.  2.     Burnett's  13.  L.     Kennic.  Remarks. 

1209.  The  extirpation  of  the  Canaanites,  which  the 
Jews  executed  by  divine  command,  is  represented  as  a 
shocking  instance  of  cruelty ;  but  their  v^ickedness 
was  so  great,  as  to  deserve  such  exemplary  punishment 
from  God,  as  might  prove  a  warning  lo  other  nations ; 
he  might  as  justly  destroy  them  by  the  sword  of  the 
Israelites,  as  by  famine,  pestilence,  or  any  other  judg- 
ment ;  he  gave  full  proof,  by  miracles,  that  he  had 
commissioned  the  Israelites  for  this  very  purpose  ; 
and,  their  being  thus  commissioned,  had  the  strongest 
tendency  to  impress  them  with  an  abhorrence  of 
idolatry. 

Shuckford's  Connex.     Findlay,  Part  2.  p.l25.     Leland  against 
Morgan.    Lowman,  Heb.  Gov.  p.  2£0,  &c. 

1210.  3.  The  Mosaic  law  punishing  idolatry  with 
death,  has  been  represented  as  unjust,  and  giving 
countenance  to  persecution  for  religious  opinions  :  but 
the  Israelites  were  commanded  to  put  to  death  only 
such  Israelites  as  apostatized  to  idolatry,  and  still 
remained  members  of  their  own  community  ;  and  their 
government  being  a  Theocracy,  idolatry  was  in  it, 
strictly,  the  political  crime  of  high  treason,  which,  in 
every  state,  is  justly  punishable  with  death. 

Locke  ou  Toleration.     Warb.  Div.  Leg. 


TO  MORALITY.  411 

1211.  It  has  been  asserted  by  some,  that  the  law  of 
Moses,  Lev.  xxvii.  28,  29.  concerning  devoted  things 
to  be  put  to  death,  authorized  human  sacrifices  ;  and, 
Jephtha's  sacrificing  his  daughter,  Judg.  xi.  34,  &c. 
Samuel's   hewing   Agag  in  pieces  before  the  Lord, 

1  Sam.  XV.  S3,  and  David's  delivering  seven  of  Saul's 
posterity  to  the  Gibeonites,  to  be  put  to  death  by  them, 

2  Sam.  xxi.  2,  &c.  have  been  represented  as  instances 
of  human  sacrifices,  conformably  to  that  law  :  But,  as 
there  are  express  prohibitions  of  sacrificing  their  chil- 
dren, Deut.  xii.  30,  31.  Ps.  cvi.  37,  38,  Jer.  vii.  31. 
Ezek.  xvi.  20,  21.;  so,  there  not  only  is  no  direction 
to  sacrifice  any  other  human  creature,  nor  any  rites 
appointed  for  such  sacrifice  ;  but  also,  it  would  have 
rendered  the  priest  unclean,  by  touching  a  dead  body; 
and  the  sacrifice  of  a  man  is  expressly  declared  abom- 
inable, Isa.  Ixvi.  3.  As  no  devoted  thing  could  be 
sacrificed  at  all,  the  law  in  question  cannot  possibly 
relate  to  sacrifice,  and  it  is  capable  of  a  very  diff'erent 
meaning ;  it  is  most  probable,  that  Jephtha  did  not 
sacrifice  his  daughter,  but  devoted  her  to  perpetual 
virginity ;  and  the  other  two  instances  alleged  have 
no  relation  to  sacrifice. 

Sykes's  Connex.  c.  13      Chandler^s  Aiisvv,  to  Hist,  of  the  Man 
after  God's  own  heart.     Lowth  on  Isa.  xlii  16. 

1212.  4.  The  Scripture  seems,  in  some  places,  to 
ascribe  to  God  such  human  passions,  and  such  actions, 
as  are  vicious  ;  but  it  is  only  by  figurative  expressions, 
which,  when  properly  explained,  imply  nothing  im- 
moral. 

Jealousy — fury — swearing  in  wrath — repenting — deceiving  men 
— hardening  Pharaoh's  heart — putting  a  lying  spirit  into 


41B  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

prophets — punishing  children  for  the  sins  of  their  parents. 
Isa  xl.  2.     Lowth. 

1213.  There  is  no  part  of  the  doctrine  of  the  New 
Testament  that  gives  encouragement  to  any  species  of 
immorality  ;  the  appearance  of  it  has  arisen^  only  from 
misinterpreting  particular  texts,  or  misexplaining 
general  doctrines. 

Matth.  X.  34,  &c.  *'  Send  a  sword" — only  foretells  persecution 
by  enemies. 

Luke  xvi.  I — 12.  Parable  of  unjust  steward  gives  no  encour- 
agement to  dishonesty. 

Death  of  Christ.     Justification  by  faith.    Divine  assistances. 

1214.  5.  It  is  objected  to  the  prophets,  that  they 
foretell  things  which  did  not  come  to  pass;  but  with- 
out reason ;  for  the  examples  produced  are  either 
misunderstood,  or,  they  are  conditional  promises  and 
threatenings,  not  absolute  predictions. 

Tindal.  c.  13. 

2  Kin^s  viii.  10.    Elisha's  answer  to  Hazael.    lS  for  nS. 

1  Chron,  xxxiv.  28  xxw.  23.     Jonah. 

Seeming  assertions  that  the  last  day  was  near,  1  Cor.  x.  11. 

Rom.  xiii.  11,12.     Heb.  ix.  26.     Jam.  v.  7,  8.     1  John  ii.  18. 

2  Pet.  iii.  12,  13.     Phil.  iv.  5.     1  Thess  iv.  15,  &c. 

1215.  It  is  asserted,  that  the  imprecations  pro- 
nounced by  the  prophets,  particularly  in  many  passa- 
ges of  the  Psalms,  show  a  spirit  of  malice  inconsistent 
with  humanity,  and  highly  vicious :  it  is  an  improper 
vindication  of  these,  either  to  allow  that  malice  was 
consistent  with  the  spirit  of  the  Old  Testament,  though 
not  of  the  New,  or,  to  say  that  the  prophets  pro- 
nounced them  against  men,  not  as  their  own  enemies, 


TO  MORALITY.  413 

but  as  the  enemies  of  God  :  but,  some  of  them  appear 
harsh  only  by  the  strong  figurative  style  in  which 
they  are  expressed,  and,  when  taken  out  of  this,  ap- 
pear very  allowable  wishes  ;^  all  of  them  may  be  con- 
sidered, not  as  prayers,  but  simple  predictions,  the 
imperative  being  put  for  the  future  (which  is  a  com- 
mon Hebrew  idiom,)  and  shown  to  be  so  put,  by  the 
future  being  used  in  other  parts  of  the  prediction;* 
and  this  idiom  is  more  natural  in  prediction,  than  in 
other  kinds  of  composition,  because  it  is  the  immedi- 
ate result  of  combining  idioms  common  in  the  pro- 
phetical style ;  for,  as  the  prophets  are  often  com- 
manded to  do  a  thing,  when  it  is  only  meant  that  they 
should  foretell  it,^  so  they  often  do  foretell  a  thing,  by 
commanding  it  to  be  done,'*  and  they  often  express 
their  predictions  in  an  address  to  God  ;*  the  union  of 
which  two  idioms  gives  them  the  appearance  of  im- 
precations. 

iPs.  X.  5, — 2  Ps.  xxviii.  4,  5. — '  Jer.  i.  10.     Isa.  vi.  10.    Ezek. 
xiiii.  3. — *  Isa.  xlvii.  1.—*  Isa.  ix.  3. 

1216.  It  is  said,  that  some  of  the  actions  which  the 
prophets  did  by  the  direction  of  God,  are  indecent  or 
immor-^l ;  but  some  of  them  are  by  no  means  so  when 
rightly  conceived,  and  others  were  either  merely  sym- 
bolical, or  only  represented  in  vision,  or  even  merely 
related  by  the  prophet. 

Tindal,  ib. 

Isa.  XX.  3.     Going  naked.     Jer.  xiii.  4,  6.     xxvii.  2,  3.     Ezek. 

iv.  passim.     Hos.  i.  2,  &c.     Horsley's  Hosea,  Pref. 

1217.  It  is  said,  that  there  are,  in  some  places  of 
Scripture,  expressions  and  figures  which  are  indecent. 


414      PASSSAGES  UNREASONABLY  SEVERE. 

or  nearly  obscene  ;    but,  the  simplicity  of  manners 
which  then  prevailed,   made  such  expressions  much 
less  offensive  than  they  appear  to  us. 
Song  of  Solomon.    Ezek.  xvi.  xxiii. 


SECT.  III. 


Passages  unreasonably  Severe. 

1218.  There  are  passages  in  Scripture,  which 
seem  unreasonably  severe,  or  to  enjoin  what  is  im- 
practicable. 

1219.  There  are  instances  of  punishments  inflicted, 
which  seem  too  severe  for  the  crimes  committed  ;  but, 
they  only  seem  such,  when  all  the  circumstances  of  the 
crimes,  and  the  exigencies  which  required  the  punish- 
ments, are  not  duly  considered. 

1220.  There  are  doctrines  and  assertions  which  ap- 
pear hard,  inconsistent  with  the  goodness  of  God,  or 
unsuitable  to  the  weakness  of  man  ;  but,  the  appear- 
ance vanishes,  when  the  passages  which  contain  them 
are  properly  explained. 

Matt.  xix.  23,  &c.     "  \  rich  man,  enter  into  the  kingdom   of 

God" — who  "  trusts  to  riches,"  Mark  x.  24. 
John  vi.  51 — 58.     Eating  Christ's  flesh. 
Matth.  xii.  31.     Mark  iii.  28.      Luke  xii.   10.      Blasphemy 

against  the  Holy  Ghost,  v.  '36.     Idle  words. 


PASSAGES  UNREASONABLY  SEVERE.  415 

Heb.  vi.  4 — 6     Impossible  to  renew  to  repentance. 
John  V.  16.     The  sin  unto  death. 

1221.  Of  the  precepts  of  Scripture  objected  to  as 
unreasonably  severe,  or  impracticable,  some  appear 
such,  only  by  their  being  expressed  in  figurative  and 
metaphorical  terms,  the  meaning  of  which,  and  not 
the  sound,  ought  to  be  attended  to. 

Matth.  V.  SO.  "  Cut  off  a  right  hand,  pluck  out  a  right  eye.'* 
Matth.  xix.  12.  Eunuchs  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

1222.  Others  appear  hard,  only  on  account  of  some 
idiom  in  which  they  are  expressed,  but  which  has  an 
established  meaning,  according  to  which  they  are  just 
and  reasonable  precepts. 

Expressed  absolutely,  when  only  comparison  meant. 

Matth.  vi    19.     *•  Lay  not  up  treasures  on  earth."   John.  vi.  27. 

"  Labour  not  for  the  meat  which  perisheth." 
Col.  iii  2.  •*  Set  not  your  affections  on  things  on  earth." 

1223.  Others  derive  their  seeming  severity,  only 
from  the  ambiguity  of  some  of  the  expressions  used  in 
them. 

Matth  V.  '^8.  "  Look  on  a  woman  to  lust  after  her — adultery." 
— married  woman— desire  to  have  carnal  intercourse  with 
her. 

1224.  Others  appear  hard,  only  by  their  being  ex- 
pressed in  general  terms,  which  the  nature  of  the 
thing,  and  often  the  context,  shows,  require  some  re- 
strictions and  limitations. 

Matth.  V.  39,  40.  "  Resist  not  evil."     Luke  vi.  30. 
Jam.  ii    10.     Seeker,  vol   7.  Serm.  3.     Sherlock,  vol.  i.  Disc. 
18.  p.  347.     Porteus,  Serm.  15,  16, 


416  PASSAGES  UNREASONABLY  SEVERE. 

1225.  Others  are  only  hard  to  corrupt  appetites  and 
passions,  but  really  enjoin  no  more  than  good  morals 
absolutely  require,  in  the  circumstances  to  which  the 
precepts  refer. 

Denying  one's  self.  Taking  up  the  cross.  Enduring  persecu- 
tion. 


.SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS.  417 


CHAP.  VII. 


Seeming  Contradictions  to  History^  and  Matters  of 

Fact. 


1226.  There  are,  in  Scripture,  some  appearances 
of  contradiction  to  matters  of  fact  belonging  to  his- 
tory, geography,  and  the  like.  Such  appearances 
are  found,  either  in  the  professed  narrations  of  the 
sacred  writers,^ — or,  in  their  occasional  allusions  and 
references,  or,  in  the  prophecies. 


SECT.  I. 


Seeming   Contradictions  to   Matters   of  Fact  in  the 
Narrations  of  the  Sacred  Writers. 


1227.  The  silence  of  profane  histories  concerning 
facts  related  in  the  sacred,  cannot  be  consid- 
ered as  contradicting  them,  because  many  of  these 
facts  are  too  ancient  to  come  within  the  verge  of  pro- 
fane histories,  or,  of  such  a  kind,  that  they  could  not 

naturally  take  notice  of  them.     The  silence,  or  omis- 
63 


418  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

sion,  even  of  many  historians,  ought  not  to   overturn 
the  testimony  of  any  one  author  who  positively  relates 
a  matter  of  fact. 
Beausobre,  p.  154. 

1228.  Contradictions  of  facts  related  in  Scripture, 
by  historians  who  lived  long  after  the  date  of  them, 
ought  to  have  no  weight. 

Justin's  account  of  the  Israelites  being  driven  out  of  Egypt. 

1229.  The  Scripture  account  of  the  peopling  of  the 
earth,  first,  by  one  pair,  Adam  and  Eve,  and  after- 
wards, by  the  one  family  of  Noah,  has  been  represent- 
ed as  inconsistent  with  facts,  which  indicate  different 
races  of  men,  and  with  the  disjoined  situation  of 
America  from  the  old  world  :  but,  no  certain  proof  of 
the  inconsistence  has  ever  been  produced  ;  on  the  con- 
trary, many  known  facts  render  it  perfectly  credible. 

1230.  The  Egyptian  and  Chinese  catalogues  of 
kings  and  heroes,  carried  back  further  than  the  begin- 
ning of  the  w^orld  according  to  Moses,  are  to  be  regard- 
ed as  altogether  fabulous. 

1231.  Moses's  account  of  the  rise  of  the  Assyrian 
Empire  so  early  after  the  flood,  in  the  time  of  Nimrod, 
is  thought  inconsistent  with  the  greatness  ascribed  to 
it  by  Herodotus  and  Ctesias  :  but  their  accounts  may 
be  exaggerated ;  and,  by  the  chronology  of  the  Sa- 
maritan and  70,  its  distance  from  the  flood  is  much 
increased. 

Newton- s  Chron.  c.  S.  Whiston's  Rem.  on  Newt.  Shuckford'S 
Coniiex,  V.  £.  Pref.  Stillingfleet,  Grig.  Sac.  1.  3.  c.  4.  §  9. 
Cumberland,  Grig.  Gent.  Winder's  Hist,  of  Knowledge, 
V.  2.    Whiston's  Theory,  p.  137,  &c.     Jackson's  Chronol. 


TO  MATTERS  OF  FACT.  4l9 

1232.  Moses's  account  of  the  division  of  the  land  of 
Egypt  has  been  represented  as  contradictory  to  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus^  but  is  really  consistent  with  his  ac- 
count. 

Warburt.  Div.  Leg.  Vol.  3.  p.  63. 

1233.  Several  circumstances  relating  to  the  consti- 
tution, the  customs,  and  the  state  of  Egypt  mentioned 
by  Moses,  seem  to  contradict  the  accounts  given  in 
other  histories ;  but  are  really  consistent  with  them, 
so  far  as  these  histories  are  authentic. 

1234.  It  is  said,  that  the  land  of  Canaan  could  not 
have  nourished  so  many  inhabitants  as  to  supply  the 
number  of  fighting  men,  a  million  and  a  half,  mention- 
ed 2  Sam.  xxiv.  9.  1  Chron.  xxi.  5.  nor  to  have  sup- 
ported so  many  cattle  as  are  said  to  have  been  sacri- 
ficed, particularly  120,000  sheep,  and  22,000  oxen,  at 
Solomon's  dedication  of  the  temple,  1  Kings  viii.  63.; 
but,  if  there  has  no  mistake  crept  into  the  numbers,  it 
must  be  ascribed  to  the  surprising  fertility  of  the 
country. 

1235.  It  is  said  that  the  treasure  mentioned  as 
amassed  by  David,  for  the  purpose  of  building  a  tem- 
ple, 1  Chron.  xxix.  4,  7.  is  incredible,  being  more 
than  all  the  gold  of  all  the  princes  now  upon  earth, 
put  together  :  but,  there  may  be  a  corruption  in  the 
numbers ;  and,  besides,  we  are  not  so  well  ac(juainted 
with  the  weights  mentioned,  as  to  be  sure  what  was 
the  real  quantity ;  nor  do  we  know  certainly,  what 
was  then  the  comparative  value  of  the  precious  metals, 
nor  what  resources  for  obtaining  them,  now  lost,  there 
were  at  that  time. 


420  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 

1236.  Several  seeming  contradictions,  of  the  sacred 
to  profane  historians,  arise  only  from  their  calling  the 
same  persons,  or  places,  by  different  names. 

Prid.  Connex.  B.  1. 

Tiglath  Pileser  is  said,  1  Chron.  v.  26.  to  have  carried  the  ten 
tribes  and  multitudes,  from  Damascus,  into  Media  ;  and  it 
is  pretended,  that  he  was  Ninus  junior;  and,  that  not  he, 
but  Arbaces,  had  Media  (Usher.  Annal.  a.  3257.):  but,  it 
appears  from  Diodorus  Siculus  (lib.  2.)  that  Arbaces  had 
both  these  countries ;  and,  consequently,  he  is  the  same  with 
Tiglath  Pileser. 

Herod.  1.  2.  gives  an  account  of  Necho's  taking  the  city  of 
Cadytes,  after  his  victory  at  Magdolum.  From  2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  3.  it  appears  that  he  had  taken  Jerusalem,  after  his 
victory  at  Megiddo. — this  the  same  ;  Jerusalem  called  Al- 
kuds,  i.  e.  the  holy  city,  by  the  neighbouring  nations,  and  so 
called  b}^  them  to  this  day. 

1237.  Some  seeming  contradictions,  between  the  sa- 
cred and  profane  historians,  arise  from  the  latter  trans- 
ferring to  others  what  belonged  to  the  Israelites,  and 
disguising   the   real   facts   with   false   circumstances. 

Isa.  xxxvii.  2  Kings  xix  2  Chron.  xxxii.  The  destruction  of 
Sennacherib's  army  before  Jerusalem— probably  by  the  Siroc 
wind. — but,  Herod.  1.  2.  destruction  of  the  same  army  before 
Pelusium,  in  the  time  of  Sethon,  by  rats  making  their  arms 
useless; — from  Egyptian  priests,  who  hated  the  Jews,  in 
honour  of  their  own  nation. 
Prid.  Con.  B.  1. 

1238.  Some  seeming  contradictions  of  the  sacred 
history  to  profane,  arise  from  the  latter  being  confused 
and  inaccurate  in  points  of  chronology. 

1239.  Some  seeming  contradictions  between  sacred 
and  profane  historians  are  reconciled  by  the  more  ac- 
curate narrations  of  other  profane  historians. 


TO  MATTERS  OP  FACT.  421 

Daniel  mentions  four  kings  of  Babylon  and  Persia, — Nebuchad- 
nezzar,— Belshazzar, — Darius,  the  Mede, — and  Cyrus.  The 
first  is  acknowledged ;  the  second  is  mentioned,  though  by 
other  names, — Labynetus,  by  Herod. — Nabonnedochus,  by 
Megisth. — Nabonedus,  by  Beros. — the  third  is  not  mentioned 
at  all,  nor  room  left  for  him  in  Beros.  and  Canon  of  Ptolomy  ; 
but  he  is  the  Cyaxares  of  Xenophon ;  (Halifax,  Serm.  2. 
Prid.  Con.  B.  2.) — omitted  by  the  others,  because  he  was  only 
the  nominal  king,  Cyrus  having  the  real  power. 

1240.  Most  of  the  seeming  contradictions  between 
the  sacred  historians  and  Josephus  arise  from  his  hav- 
ing disguised,  and  departed  from  the  truth,  in  order 
to  accommodate  his  work  to  the  taste,  or  to  avoid  the 
censure  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  to  whom  he  was 
desirous  of  recommending  it. 

1241.  Some  seeming  contradictions  between  sacred 
and  profane  history,  are  owing  only  to  their  reckoning 
their  time  from  different  seras. 

Cyrus's  reign  SO  years,  viz.  from  his  coming  to  assist  Cyaxares. 
Cic.  de  Div.  1.  1. — 9  years,  viz.  from  his  taking  Babylon. 
Ptolom.  can. — 7  years,  from  his  becoming  sole  monarch. 
Xenoph.  Cyropaed.  This  last  is  followed  by  Ezra  i.  1.  «*the 
first  year  of  Cyrus.*' 

fehuckford's  Conn.  Prid.  Conn.  Stackhouse's  Hist,  of  the 
Bible.     Warb.  Div.  Leg. 


422  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS 


SECT.  II. 


Seeming  Contradictio7is  to  Matters  of  Fact,  in  occasional 
References. 


1242.  The  Scripture  often  occasionally  refers,  or 
incidentally  alludes,  to  matters  of  fact,  in  a  way  that 
seems  contradictory  to  the  accounts  of  these  matters  of 
fact  given  by  profane  historians. 

1243.  These  appearances  of  contradiction  are  of  the 
same  kinds,  arise  from  the  same  causes,  and  are  re- 
moved by  the  same  means,  with  the  appearances  of 
contradiction  in  professed  narrations. 

Jer.  li.  25.  Babylon  is  addressed,  "  0  destroying  mountain.^^ 
— but,  lay  in  a  plain. — ireconciled  from  Berosus. 
Newton  on  Prophecy,  v.  1.  p.  279. 
Isa.  iii.  16.  to  the  end.     Lowth.     Ch.  xlix.  16, 23.  1. 1,  6.  li.  23. 
lii.  2.  liii.  8.  Ivii.  G— -9.   Ixv.  3,  4.     Matth.  xxi.  12. 
See  Lowth  on  Isa.  Ixii.  6. 

1244.  There  are,  in  the  New  Testament,  several  re- 
ferences and  allusions  to  facts,  customs,  and  manners, 
which  seems,  at  first  sight,  contrary  to  the  accounts  of 
these  in  profane  histories  ;  but,  are  so  far  from  being 
really  inconsistent  with  them,  that,  for  the  most  part 
they  show  very  great  exactness. 

Lardner's  Credib.  P.  1.  V.  2. 


TO  MATTERS  OF  FACT.  428 


SECT.  III. 


Seeming  Contradictions  to  Matters  of  Fact,  in 
Prophecies. 


1245.  The  events  foretold  in  the  prophecies  of  Scrip- 
ture, are  often  such  as  fall  within  the  province  of  pro- 
fane history ;  and,  the  relations  of  them  given  in  it, 
are  sometimes  such,  as  seem  not  to  verify  the  predic- 
tions. 

1246.  When  the  histories  of  any  period,  to  which 
a  prediction  relates,  are  lost  or  imperfect,  this  renders 
it  impossible  for  us  to  perceive  clearly  and  fully  the 
completion  of  the  prediction. 

Want  of  regular  histories  of  the  Eastern  nations. 

Isa.  sliii  3.  Lowth.  "  I  gave  Egypt  for  thy  ransom,  Ethiopia 
(or  Cush,)  and  Seba  for  thee."  Commonly  applied  to  Sen- 
nacherib's invasion,  who,  when  he  was  just  ready  to  fall 
upon  Jerusalem,  was  providentially  diverted  from  that  de- 
sign, and  led  to  turn  his  arms  against  the  Egyptians,  and 
their  allies,  the  Cushian  Arabians,  who  were  perhaps  joined 
by  their  neighbours  the  Sabians.  Some  objections.  See  ch. 
XX.  xxxvii.  9.  Vitringa  explains  it  of  Shalmanezer's  being 
diverted  from  his  designs  against  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 


424  SEEMING  CONTRADICTIONS, 

after  he  had  destroyed  that  of  Samaria,  by  turning  the  war 
against  the  Egyptians,  Cushians,  and  Sabians.  But,  no  clear 
proof  of  this  from  history,  which,  however  is  very  deficient. 
Others  refer  it  to  no  particular  events,  but  think  it  means,  in 
general,  that  God  often  saved  his  people  at  the  expense  of 
other  nations,  whom  he  gave  up  to  destruction,  as  it  were,  in 
their  stead. 

1247.  Sometimes,  there  is  an  appearance  of  incon- 
sistence, between  some  parts  of  a  prediction,  and  some 
particulars  of  the  event,  as  related  by  profane  histori- 
ans ;  but,  it  proceeds  from  some  confusion,  or  mistake^, 
in  the  relations  of  these  historians. 


COMPLICATED    DIFFICULTIES.  425 


CHAP.  VIII. 


Complicated  Difficulties, 

1248.  Besides  the  several  simple  kinds  of  diflicul- 
ties  which  have  been  already  considered,  there  are, 
in  Scripture,  complicated  difficulties  ;  that  is,  passages 
in  which  several  of  these  simple  kinds  occur  together. 

1249.  There  are  passages,  in  which  there  are  differ- 
ent difficulties,  in  the  reading, — or,  in  the  sense, — 
or  in  both,  and  which  must  be  removed  on  different 
principles, — and  difficulties  admitting  different  pro- 
bable solutions,  but  none  of  which  can  be  adopted  with 
perfect  certainty. 


SECT.  I. 


Difficulties  arising  from  different  various  Readings, 

1250.  There  are  texts  in  which  there  are  different 
various  readings,  which  arise  from  different  causes,  and 
must  be  determined  on  different  principles. 

Gen.  xlix.  6.    *'  In  iheir  self-will  they  digged  down  a  wall." 
'yWy  "a  wall,*'— no  such  circumstance  in  the  history,  ch. 
xxxiv.  25,  &c. — would  have  been  the  least  part  of  their 
54 


426  DIFFICULTIES  IN  READING. 

crime.  Some  read  ^W  "  an  ox," — "  houghed  the  oxen," 
marg.  but  this  not  true,  ch.  xxxiv.  28,  29.  thej  carried  them 
away. — probably  "^u  "  prince,"  this  said  ch.  xxxiv.  26. 
"  Hamor  also,  and  Sichem  (the  prince  and  his  son)  they 
slew."  DJ:;"^,  "  self-will," — but  every  where  signifies  "  be- 
nevolence, favour." — probably  should  be  rriDj;,  "  wrath," 
as  in  the  next  verse,  structure  "  In  their  anger  they  slew 
a  man,  and  in  their  wrath  they  slew  a  prince.  Cursed  be 
their  anger,  for  it  was  fierce ;  and  their  wrath,  for  it  was 
cruel."     Syr. 

Ken.  Diss.  1.  p.  56,  &c. 

1  Chron  xi.  8. 
lb  p.  48,  &c. 

Acts  xiii.  23.  "  Of  this  man's  seed,  hath  God,  according  to 
his  promise  {viyeipe)  raised  unto  Israel  a  Saviour,  Jesus  '* 
Instead  of  tjytipej  is  found  tiyttye  in  14  MSS.  some  of  them  of 
great  authority.  Arab.  Ethiop.  Vulg.  Chrysost.  Athanas. 
Theophyl.  2  editions,  the  best  supported  reading ;  the  other, 
taken  by  mistake  from  v.  22.  Instead  of  o-mTjpet  lija-cw,  is 
<re*Tt]^iav  in  15  MSS.  Arab.  Ethiop.  Chrysost.— this,  though 
so  well  supported,  disturbs  the  sense,  and  construes  not  with 
what  follows. 

Jer.  xlvi.  15.    Kern  Diss.  Gen. 

Isa.  v.  1 8.    Lowth. 

Isa.  vii.  18,  I9,  20,  &c.    lid. 

Isa.  xvi.  8,  9.    lid. 

Isa.  xxxii.  13.     lid. 

Isa.  xlii.  16.    lid. 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  SENSE.  427 


SECT.  II. 


Complicated  Difficulties  in  the  Sense. 


1251.  In  some  passages,  there  are  difficulties  in  the 
sense,  of  different  kinds,  and  which  must  be  removed 
by  different  means. 

1  Cor.  xi.  3 — 15.  '*  Man  praying  or  prophesying  with  his  head 
covered,  dishonoureth  his  head,"  allusion  to  the  customs  and 
sentiments  of  the  Greks,  to  whom  he  wrote  ;  for  the  Jewish 
custom  contrary.  "  His  head,"  i.  e.  himself,  does  what  must 
appear  indecent  to  his  hearers.  But,  '*  every  woman — with 
her  head  uncovered,  dishonoureth  her  head.*'  Here,  various 
difficulties.  1.  He  supposes  women  to  speak  in  public,  yet 
forbids  this,  ch.  xiv.  34,  35.  Some  understand  this  prohibi- 
tion with  the  exception  of  a  special  commission,  by  having 
the  gift  of  prophecy ;  but  it  is  absolute,  and  given  in  relation 
to  this  very  case  of  the  gift  of  prophecy. — Others,  that  by 
praying  or  prophesying  here,  he  means,  being  present  at  them  ; 
this  is  a  sense  without  authority.  Others,  that  the  prohibi- 
tion respects  the  church  where  men  and  women  meet  to- 
gether ;  the  supposition,  separate  assemblies  of  women  only ; 
the  church  not  mentioned  in  this  paragraph.  This  agreeable 
to  the  Greek  manners;  this  the  most  probable  sense. — 
2.  How  is  the  man  the  glory  of  God,  and  the  woman  the 
glory  of  the  man  ?  v.  7.  Some,  "  glories  in  ;"  others,  "  is  an 
effulgence  from ;"  this,  one  signification  of  nU3  which  the 
70  render  Sc^x.  Others,  "  glorifies,"  was  made  to  glorify. 
Others,  "  is  the  likeness  or  similitude ;"  this  the  sense  of 
nJ'Dn  which  is  twice  rendered  <Jo|«  by  the  70.  3.  What  is 
meant  by  the  woman  having  e^ovo-iav  power  on  her  head  ? 
V.  10.    Some,  figuratively,  for  a  veil;  but  no  evidence  for 


428  DIFFICULTIES  IN  SENSE. 

this  sense  of  the  word — connects  not  with  the  principle,  v.  9. 
from  which  it  is  an  inference.  Others,  literally;  and  "her 
head,''  figuratively,  for  the  man — "  to  hold  or  acknowledge 
power  in  the  man,"  viz.  in  her  general  behaviour.  This 
equivalent  to  1  Tim.  ii.  11,12,13. — 4.  Atcc  rovq  ayyiXovq^ 
^'because  of  the  angels."  (1)  Some,  evil  angels,  who  would 
be  gratified  by  their  indecency;  but  this  not  probable.  (2) 
Others,  good  angels,  "  after  the  example  of  the  angels,"  Isa. 
vi.  2. ;  but  this  not  the  meaning  of  S'lot.  Others,  "because 
they  observe  your  conduct."  Others,  "  to  show  subjection 
to  the  angels  "  Others,  **  out  of  reverence  to  angels,"  as 
fellow-worshippers,  according  to  an  opinion  of  the  Jews. 
(S)  Others,  "  the  teachers  of  the  church."  Others,  "  mes- 
sengers, sent  by  the  men  into  the  separate  assemblies  of  the 
women'* — or,  '*  spies  sent  by  the  Pagans  ;"  hard  to  fix  on  one 
meaning. — 5.  "Nature,"  v.  14. general  and  extensive  custom. 

2Cor.  iii.  13 — iv.  6.  An  allegorical  discourse,  for  which  the 
apostle  takes  occasion,  from  the  preceding  mention  of  Moses 
throwing  a  veil  over  his  face,  when  it  shone — v.  13.  "that 
the  children  of  Israel  could  not  look,"  &c.  referring  it  to 
Moses  ; — this  suits  not  the  apostle's  design >  to  vindicate  his 
plainness  of  speech,  nor  almost  makes  sense;  refers  to  the 
ministers  of  the  gospel,  "  not  any  veil  of  ours  that  prevents 
them  from  perceiving  the  design  of  the  law,  but  (v.  14.)  the 
blindness  of  their  own  minds,  as  if  they  were  veiled  when 
they  read  the  Old  Testament,  though  Christ  answers  its 
description  so  exactly,  as  might  convince  them  ;  but  (v.  16.) 
when  they  lay  aside  prejudice,  they  will  see  it  clearly." 
V.  17.  "  The  Lord  is  that  Spirit,"  alluding  to  v.  6.  "-  a  min- 
ister, not  of  the  letter,  but  of  the  spirit,"  the  spirit  and  in- 
tention of  the  Old  Testament,  v.  18.  connected  with  the 
beginning  of  v.  13.  "  Moses  put  a  veil — but  we  all  with  open 
face,"  &c. ;  "  we,"  the  ministers  of  the  New  Testament, 
*'  with  open  face,"  not  veiled,  KXTdTrrpi^of^ivot  "reflecting  as 
mirrors  the  glory  of  the  Lord,"  the  shining  light  of  the  gos- 
pel, "  are  changed  into  the  same  image,  from  glory  to  glory," 
with  a  continued  and  increasing  brightness,  not  like  the 
transient  lustre  of  Moses's  face,  v.  7.  "  as  from  the  Lord, 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  READING  AND  SENSE.  429 

the  Spirit,"  kxS-xttbp  wro  Kvptov,  TnevfAurcq^  illuminated  with 
brighter  rays  of  light  than  Moses,  and,  therefore,  might  speak 
with  greater  freedom,  as  he  infers,  ch  iv.  1.  "Therefore — 
we  faint  not,"  «v«  £)t»axot/jitf»,  restrain  not  speech ;  "  but  v.  2. 
having  renounced,"  &c  preach  candidly.  He  goes  on,  v.  3. 
alluding  to  veil  and  open  face. 


SECT.  III. 


Difficulties  both  in  Reading  and  in  Sense* 


1252.  In  some  passages,  there  are  difficulties  both 
concerning  the  true  reading,  and  the  sense. 

Isa.  liii.  David's  lamentation.     Ken  Diss.  1.  p.  118. 

Mic.  V.  1 — 5  A  remarkable  prediction,  quoted  by  the  college 
of  priests.  Matt.  ii.  6.  both  the  beginning  and  end  of  it  wrong 
marked  in  the  Hebrew.  V.  1.  belongs  to  the  preceding  pre- 
diction ;  this  begins  only  v.  2.  The  end  of  it  is  cut  off,  and 
joined  with  v.  5.  very  improperly,  '*  this  man  shall  be  our 
peace  in  our  war  with  the  Assyrians."— V.  2.  literally, 
*'  And  thou,  Bethlehem  Ephratah,  art  little  to  be  among  the 
tliousands  of  Judah ; '  but  in  Matth.  "  art  not  the  least." 
This  affects  not  the  aqcomplishment  of  the  prophecy — no  in- 
consistency ;  though  little,  not  the  least,  feome  suppose  the 
negative  omitted  in  Micah,  but  without  evidence.  Others 
that  yya  signifies  great  as  well  as  little,  and  means  so  in 
Micah.  Others  read  the  text  in  Micah  interrogatively,  "  Art 
thou  little?  No."  This  simplest.  Arab.  Pers. — 'sbjc 
"  thousands,"  put  for  *3iSn  "  princes."  "  Whose  goings 
forth  have  been  from  of  old,  from  the  days  of  the  age." 
V.  3.  "  Therefore,"  &c.  expresses  not  the  sense  of  the 
Hebrew.    "  Truly  he  will  continue  to  give  them,  until  the 


4S0  DlFFI€ULTlt:S  IN  READING  AND  SENSE. 

time  that  she  who  is  a-bearing  hath  born ;"  allusion  to  Isa. 
vii.  14.  "Then,  his  excellent  brethren,  his  chosen  compan- 
ions, shall  dwell  with  the  children  of  Israel."  V,  4.  "  And 
he  shall  stand  and  feed  in  the  strength  of  the  Lord,  in  the 
majesty  of  the  name  of  Jehovah  his  God  ;  and  they  (his 
brethren)  shall  abide,"  be  established  ;  "  for  now  shall  he  be 
great  unto  the  ends  of  the  earth."  And  (v.  5.)  "this  man 
shall  be  the  peace,"  reconcile  us  to  God. 

Isa.  iii.  6,  7.  Lowth  in  1.  vi.  10.  Id.  viii.  12 — 18.  Id.  xvi.  1. 
Id.  xvi.  7.  Id.  xlviii.  16.  Id.  Jer.  xvi.  7.  Ken.  Diss.  Gen. 
§  177. 

John  xvi.  8—11.  P.  2.  C.  2.  S.  2.  Acts  ii.  SO,  ^c.  ib.  Rom. 
i.  32.     Mill  in  loc. 

Gal.  iv,  22 — 31.  It  is  an  allegory,  but  is  produced  as  an  ar- 
gument. Collins.  But  uTivoc  sa-Ttv  uXAriyo^ovf^evcc  should  be 
rendered,  "which  things  are  allegorized,"  viz.  by  Isa.  ch, 
liv.  1.  Sarah,  a  remarkable  instance  of  a  woman  long  barren, 
having  a  numerous  posterity  ;  by  the  other  woman,  is  meant 
Hagar.  And  these  two  are  put  by  the  prophet  to  represent 
the  two  covenants.  "For  this  Agar  is  Mount  ^inai  in 
Arabia.'*  Great  variety  in  the  reading  of  this  clause  ;  ac- 
cording to  some,  it  is  an  interpolation  ;  at  any  rate,  a  paren- 
thesis. Agar,  a  bond-woman,  represents  the  earthly  Jeru- 
salem, the  present  Jews,  who  are  slaves  to  the  ceremonial 
law.  Sarah,  a  free-woman,  represents  Christians,  Jerusalem 
from  above,  a  spiritual  dispensation.  This,  the  apostle  says, 
is  the  true  meaning  of  Isaiah's  allegory,  which  also  appears 
from  the  prophet  himself.  He  does  not,  therefore,  give  the 
Galatians  an  allegory  instead  of  an  argument,  but  a  real  and 
strong  argument,  the  express  authority  of  Isaiah,  than  which, 
none  could  be  to  them  more  decisive. 

Psal.  rix.  Part  of  this  psalm  is  applied  to  Judas,  Acts  i.  20. 
only  by  accommodation,  according  to  the  most  general  opin- 
ion ;  but  the  whole  seems  to  be  a  prediction  of  the  malice 
and  the  punishment  of  the  Messiah's  enemies.  Great  part 
of  it  consists  of  imprecations,  which  some  account  for,  by  sup- 
posing tliat  David  only  repeats  the  curses  of  his  enemies. 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  SOLUTIONS.  431 

This  hypothesis,  however,  is  inapplicable,  and  inconsistent 
with  V.  8.  to  Judas.  They  are  not  imprecations,  but  predic- 
tions, expressed  in  the  imperative,  instead  of  the  future,  as 
is  often  done  in  Hebrew,  particularly  in  the  prophetical  writ- 
ings. This  observation  removes  all  difficulty,  and  makes 
the  psalm  appear  a  very  explicit  prediction,  of  the  malice  of 
the  Jews  against  Christ,  of  his  death,  of  his  victory  over  his 
enemies  ;  and  particularly,  a  very  minute  and  circumstan- 
tial description  of  the  fate  of  Judas,  and  of  the  desolation 
and  dispersion  of  the  Jews. 


SECT.  IV. 


Difficulties  which  admit  different  Solutions. 

1253.  In  some  passages  there  are  difficulties  which 
admit  different  solutions,  none  of  which  can  be  deter- 
mined to  be  certainly  the  one  true  solution,  all  hav- 
ing some  degree  of  plausibility.  This  is  unavoidable, 
from  the  very  nature  of  criticism,  which,  not  being  a 
demonstrable  science,  few  of  its  conclusions  can  be  at- 
tended with  absolute  certainty,  but  most  of  them  have 
only  greater  or  less  probability.  Whenever  the  pro- 
babilities on  the  opposite  sides  are  nearly  equal,  the  in- 
stance falls  under  the  present  head.  Accordingly, 
some  of  the  examples  under  almost  every  principle  al- 
ready considered,  belong  to  this  class,  which  renders 
it  unnecessary  to  multiply  separate  examples.  Instead 
of  this,  we  may  remark  that,  for  the  reason  just  now 
mentioned,  we  should  avoid  adopting  even  such  solu- 
tions as  appear  best  supported,  too  dogmatically,  as  if 
they  were  infallible. 


CONCLUSION. 


The  subject,  which  I  have  now  brought  to  a  conclu- 
sion, naturally  leads  me  to  recommend  to  you  the  study 
of  the  Scriptures,  as  your  principal  employment.  They 
are  the  only  pure  sources  of  theological  knowledge. 
Could  we  understand  them  perfectly,  our  knowledge 
would  be  complete,  and  free  from  error.    If  we  study 
them  with  care,  we  cannot  fail  to  acquire  all  necessary 
knowledge,  and  to  escape  every  dangerous  error.  The- 
ology, derived  immediately  from  them,  will  be  simple, 
and  wholly  practical.     If  you  would  understand  them, 
read  them  in  the  original  languages,  and  be  at  pains 
to  qualify  yourselves  for  doing  so.  Take  the  assistance 
of  versions,  but  rest  not  in  them  ;  compare  them  with 
one  another,  and  with  the  original.     Take  the  assist- 
ance of  commentators,  but  follow  them  not  implicitly. 
When  they  are  so  very  numerous,  it  is  astonishing  that 
so  little  can  be  learned  from  them ;  one  copies  merely 
from  another.     You  may  be  satisfied  with  a  few  of 
the  best ;  it  would  be  waste  of  time  to  attempt  consult- 
ing them  all.     The   best  of  them  often  dwell  on  what 
has  little  difficulty,  or  is  of  little  moment ;  and,  points 
on  which  you  would  wish  most  to  be  satisfied,  you 
will  often  find  passed  over  by  them  all.     The  best 
55 


434  CONCLUSION. 

have  their  prejudices  and  nostrums  ;  and,  for  support- 
ing them,  distort  and  wrest  many  passages.  Often  you 
will  find  light  from  critical  essays  on  particular  texts, 
when  general  and  voluminous  commentators  afford  you 
none.  Let  not  your  explications  be  dictated  by  your 
accidental  present  notions ;  but  founded  on,  and  tried 
by,  well-established  general  principles  of  sound  criti- 
cism. It  is  for  assisting  you  in  discovering  these,  that 
the  view  which  I  have  given,  both  of  the  Sources  and 
of  the  Objects  of  Scripture  Criticism  is  intended.  Above 
all,  fix  a  proper  and  upright  aim  in  studying  the  Scrip- 
tures. Your  sole  aim  should  be,  to  discover  the  real 
sense  of  every  passage,  and  to  express  it  fairly  and 
distinctly.  The  real  sense  of  a  passage  is,  not  any 
sense  which  the  words  will  bear,  nor  any  sense  which 
is  true  in  itself ;  but  only  that  which  was  intended  by 
the  writer  in  that  particular  passage.  You  should 
endeavour  to  exhaust  the  full  sense  of  a  passage,  but 
without  unduly  stretching  it,  or  finding  more  in  it  than 
was  intended.  Avoid  an  ostentation  of  learning,  in 
explaining  Scripture.  Never  aff'ect  certainty  and 
decisiveness,  where  the  sense  is  doubtful.  Take  care 
not  to  overlook  the  obvious  meaning  of  texts,  in 
searching  for  ingenious,  farfetched,  or  mystical  mean- 
ings. Read  the  Scripture,  not  with  a  view  to  support 
your  own  preconceived  opinions  from  it,  or  to  stretch, 
or  explain  it  away,  so  as  to  agree  with  them  ;  but  lay 
aside  all  prejudices,  that,  by  reading  it,  you  may 
perceive  how  far  your  opinions  need  to  be  corrected. 
Be  not  prepossessed  in  favour  of  any  sense,  merely 
because  it  is  the  most  received,  the  most  approved,  or 
the  most  popular.     Be  not  biassed  by  your  particular 


CONCLUSION.  435 

turn  and  temper,  to  adopt  the  sense  which  is  most 
agreeable  to  them.  Especially  reject  all  such  loose 
interpretations  as  would  favour  vice.  If  you  cannot 
clear  up  the  more  difficult  parts  of  Scripture,  make 
yourselves  well  acquainted  with  the  plain  parts  of  it ; 
imbibe  their  purifying  spirit,  and  be  careful  to  act 
agreeably  to  them. 


FINIS. 


ERRATA. 

Page    35,  line  20,  for  NHi  read  Kin. 

321,      *'   23,    "  S-^iuf>cQsvtvTi  read  S-^iecf^Sevovn. 
341,      «     3,  after  hour,  for  (,)  read  (.) 


Institutes  of  Biblical  criticism; 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


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